Article Helping actors improve their career well-being Charles P Chen and Komila Jagtiani University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada Abstract It is generally assumed that visible actors in the performing arts industry maintain overall wellness despite the knowledge that an actor’s life is often characterized by instability. While an actor’s performance is often critiqued subjectively and critically, the variety of occupational risks associated with an actor’s well-being is less closely examined. Prior research suggests those working within the acting profession experience significant levels of distress. As a result, this article, first, aims to address the issues confronting the actor, in particular, anxiety associated with erratic employment, vulnerability to adverse working conditions, and conflict in identity owing to the impact of acting coupled with the effect of economic insecurity. Second, the paper follows with a consideration of key counselling theories to help strengthen this diverse group’s personal well-being and career prospects. By examining counselling interventions, the application of these theories can allow actors to develop optimally in acting industries worldwide. Keywords Actors, career well-being, hindering factors, career counselling, career theories To bring forth a character is a fundamental process in the acting profession, but doing this can pose a chal- lenge to an actor’s well-being. In spite of the pressures of the profession and limited research, interest in and discussion of the subject, however, have increased in recent times (Bille & Jensen, 2018; Bradley & Ash, 2019; Lemasson et al., 2018; Maxwell et al., 2018; Robb et al., 2018). According to Silverberg (2017), at its heart, “acting is living truthfully under imagi- nary circumstances” (Preface section, para. 4). Acting sees, upon receipt of script and character, an actor not just imbed themselves but also inhabit a character’s life on stage or screen. Challenged to iden- tify and render the reality of a person’s thoughts, feel- ings, and behaviour, a worker in this profession will rely on their extraordinary capacity to explore the fragmentation of character more often in private than around others during rehearsal (Boguszak, 2016). According to the US Department of Labor (US DOL; 2008, 2020), it is thought that actors are seen on the silver screen, although more often than not, those who entertain by role-playing are found working in a television studio, circus production, theme park, live event, local theatre, cabaret or comedy club. With a profound level of commitment, an actor entertains, expresses ideas, and communi- cates with their audience through the interpretation of a dramatic role; yet few achieve the recognition of stardom (US DOL, 2020). As one of the world’s earliest professions, and given the desirability of working as an actor in a cre- ative industry, one might predict that the arts would have been treated to a systematic study of occupation much like traditional careers in medicine or law, yet academic research on actors’ lives and the acting pro- fession over recent decades has often been neglected (Foster & Blau, 1989). The prerequisite to attend numerous auditions and rehearsals is a well-known process for those aspiring to make it in a field that holds the promise for fame and fortune; yet the issue of what it takes to survive in a creative industry and turn an art into a profession is seldom examined (Bille & Jensen, 2018). Corresponding author: Charles P Chen, Counselling and Clinical Psychology Program, Department of Applied Psychology and Human Development, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), University of Toronto, 252 Bloor Street West, 7th Floor, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1V6, Canada. Email: cp.chen@utoronto.ca Australian Journal of Career Development 2021, Vol. 30(1) 55–63 ! Australian Council for Educational Research 2020 Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions DOI: 10.1177/1038416220983945 journals.sagepub.com/home/acd Confronting this issue, Seton (2008) shed light on the complex nature of the acting practice and the impact of “post-dramatic stress” (borrowing from post-traumatic stress disorder) on actors’ lives (p. 2), while Middleton (2012) argued that acting training has not been examined through a psychological lens, even though it requires actors to work intensively with material located within one’s own mind/body. Along these lines, research by Prior et al. (2015) sug- gested that an investigation into an actor’s personal well-being is more often than not scarce, even though Brandfonbrener (1992) wrote of actors as “The Forgotten Patients,” who face health risks and psy- chological hazards while endeavoring to portray with depth a character’s emotions, not to mention acquire possible negative personality traits of their character. Since acting remains one of the most visible pro- fessions in the performing arts, the psychological impact of an acting career on well-being has been addressed by academia, although in limited form. Research suggests those working within this field experience significantly greater levels of depression, anxiety, and stress than the general population (Maxwell et al., 2015). In addition to symptoms of anxiety and depression, Robb et al. (2018) found Australian actors vulnerable to vicarious trauma and perfectionism, as well as being exposed to a range of issues including alcohol abuse, low help- seeking, high self-criticism, and identity problems. Thus, research that sheds light on actors’ mental health and well-being is warranted. While Bradley and Ash (2019) discussed the variety of factors that contribute to an actor’s poor mental health, there remains considerable room to advocate for industry improvement. Take for example, through the safe distance of social media, the shared victimi- zation and survival stories of high profile actors who faced sexual assault in a work context - a collective action that inspired the rise of the 2017 “Me Too” movement in the United States, which sought to call out to survivors across the country to respond and raise awareness (Gibson et al., 2019). Within weeks, the #MeToo campaign saw the unexpected exposure of influential American film producer, Harvey Weinstein, gave a voice to many across sectors who rallied to be heard despite opposition – and grew into a global movement that affected the highest offices in Europe (Bhattacharyya, 2018). Despite Weinstein’s subsequent conviction, the response that saw the elite of Hollywood “distance themselves from toxic talent and terminate existing contracts” (Sheikha, 2019, p. 203), has now raised concern for the unique challenges associated with the acting profession. The timing of the #MeToo movement made salient the issue of sexual miscon- duct in the Hollywood film industry, “an involuntary crisis that threatens one’s career and psychological health” (Sharf, 2013, p. 278), provided a turning point for attracting public attention, and initiated a new dialogue in an actor’s work setting, nationally and beyond (Gibson et al., 2019). Being cognizant of the complex and intertwined life-career experiences of actors in the prior discus- sion, this article attempts to focus specifically on issues pertaining to career well-being of actors in a North American context, namely, the USA and Canada. To this end, the article elaborates on three factors that hinder an actor’s career development: erratic employment, challenging work conditions, and income insecurity. The article then considers theory-guided strategies to help actors better cope with these career problems, utilizing key tenets and ideas from major career theories, such as Holland’s (1997) theory of personality types, Cochran’s (1997) narrative career counselling theory, and Krumboltz’s (1996) social learning theory. These theory-guided career counselling interventions can be applied to help actors charter their career trajectory and manage their work-life in a more optimal manner. Hindering factors on life-careers As a profession that promises upward social mobility since the mid twentieth century, acting is one of the most popular occupational positions an individual aspires to (Sewell et al., 1957). While the profession of acting differs from other established professions in the manner by which it is open to all social classes and democratic in nature (Foster & Blau, 1989; Zarrilli & Hulton, 2009), the acting profession, however, brings an aspect of career precariousness, that of insecurity and instability, to which repeated exposure in every- day life can significantly impact an actor’s well-being. Let us turn to three factors that characterize the uncertainty of the acting profession: anxiety caused by unpredictable employment, vulnerability fueled by demanding working conditions, and a growing imbal- ance in identity which is intensified by insecure income. Erratic employment and escalating anxiety The acting profession depends on indefinable and hard to measure features such as talent and creativity. In an attempt to find work within the acting arena, most aspiring actors flock to cities such as New York or Los Angeles; yet the effort to break into a notori- ously difficult and overcrowded industry leave many workers feeling disheartened (Chi, 2000). Given that an actor might be recruited by “catching an agent’s eye” only intensifies the competition in an industry that often selects talent based on physical appearance or experience in the profession. Compounding this issue, when attempting to find short-term employ- ment opportunities during the summer and winter in resort areas or on stage, young actors required to leave home face developmental stressors associated with adulthood as they navigate a new environment 56 Australian Journal of Career Development 30(1) (Prior et al., 2012). As an aspiring actor, there are long-term health implications for those exposed to an anxiety-ridden lifestyle associated with not just the ability to get the job but also with the waiting in between jobs. While formal dramatic training is expected, the lit- erature indicates an artistic education has little impact on income and career well-being (Bille & Jensen, 2018). Moreover, unexpected elements of acting train- ing can lead to further complications in terms of mental health. In a collaborative project with a French school for actors, Lemasson et al. (2018) found young actors self-reported higher levels of stress and anxiety with both large (often anxiety- provoking) and small audiences (frustration with lack of viewers but with enhanced critique). While on stage, Lemasson and colleagues noted that actors in training turned the left side of their face (related to the brain’s right hemisphere which processes negative emotions) toward the large and small audience signif- icantly more that the right side (related to the brain’s left hemisphere which processes positive emotions), research that provides support for the link between anxiety and audience effect. Actors who invest in training are subject to criti- cism and judgement of their work in progress (Hays, 2002). According to Wangh (2013), since acting instructors are a key point of access to the industry, students often dismiss personal well-being issues and opt-out of seeking help, which can lead to further negative effects. Drawing on data collected from a 2012 Actors’ Wellbeing Survey, Maxwell et al. (2018) examined the ontological question of what it means to be an actor and argued that “the claim to being an actor itself entails a certain precarity” (p. 150). With no required degree, registration with a casting agency, license, or agent representation, the authors looked at the vocation as a sort of gamble – one that is “high risk and low return”, where “anyone” can be an actor (Maxwell et al., 2018). In an industry where actors do not necessarily need an educational qualifi- cation or formal training (which might have provided a protective factor) they are more vulnerable than others training in the creative arts (Siddins et al., 2016). Keeping in mind the unstable environment offered by the acting profession, and the embedded insecur- ities not easily seen yet experienced, an actor is exposed and left vulnerable to several heightened stressors in an attempt to pursue their dream career choice. Challenging work conditions and the role of vulnerability The acting profession demands frequent auditions. According to the US DOL (2008, 2020), this test of ability, coupled with elaborate makeup, costume, and heated lights on stage or studio, are factors that require considerable stamina. Yet, the intense compe- tition offers little chance of success in an industry where “most actors struggle for a toehold in the pro- fession and pick up parts wherever they can” (US DOL, 2000, p. 254). When employed, actors must endure long and irregular working hours as well as travel on roadshows under adverse or inclement weather conditions that can exist “on location” to maintain employment (US DOL, 2008, 2020). The spotlight on achieving perfection is laborious. Compared to artists in other industries, actors are expected to have high levels of patience and commit- ment. It is not unusual for actors to conduct consid- erable research to meet the intellectual and emotional demands of characterization. From learning a foreign language to mastering accents, extended hours spent rehearsing scenes are very much part of an actor’s life. A flawless performance requires repetitive rehearsals and memorization of lines, generally a tedious task, and an actor must deliver a commendable perfor- mance with little time to prepare (US DOL, 2008, 2020). Alongside this, background actors, known as “extras” often contend with small parts with no lines to deliver (US DOL, 2008, 2020). Although actors choose to be actors, repeated expo- sure of this kind has costly consequences when it comes to health and well-being. In a study that exam- ined undergraduate actor training for Shakespeare’s King Lear, known in theater circles as the “greatest tragedy” and “cruelest play,” McDonald et al. (2019) noted that “audience members confront these cruelties only once, yet actors embody them on a nightly basis” (p. 69), and that some students expressed that “the heaviness of the tragedy threatened to ‘crumble us on the inside’” (p. 76). According to Seton (2010), who assessed the power structures inherent in a student-teacher relationship, student actors expose their inner world and look to their teachers for recognition while teachers look for willingness and vulnerability from their students. Seton (2010) considered that this embodied interac- tion leads to a concern of the manifestation and misuse of vulnerability in the process of acting train- ing and argued for both a sustainable and ethical training process. That student actors do “what it takes” to “make it” in an industry that can render them unemployable at the slightest hint of ill-health provides insight into what the acting profession offers its workers and the extent to which their well-being might be impacted. Income insecurity and identity destabilization It is commonplace for aspiring actors to be lured into the profession by a screen star’s image of fame and fortune. Yet, heavy financial investments that allow relocation to a large city for a career in acting, work- ing actors can grapple with questions such as “Will I Chen and Jagtiani 57 earn enough to cover my monthly expenses?” or “How many different jobs do I need to pursue my acting career.” The kind of jobs actors find them- selves employed in between acting opportunities are not just low-paid and low-skilled but also the types of employment fluctuate over their career. According to the 2012 Actors’ Wellbeing Survey, 84.7 percent reported income earned from sources other than acting, in areas of hospitality, teaching, and clerical work. Maxwell et al. (2018) found retail to be the most common source of work outside of acting. Not only is there the context of low pay and “speculative arrangements with producers”, but actors may take on work assignments for “deferred payment, or as part of a co-operative, dependent upon reaching a certain box-office threshold”; yet, hold an indirect acknowledgment of the possibility of no pay (Maxwell et al., 2018, p. 152). To gain experience in an acting role not easily found and to contribute to a craft they have spent their lives work- ing toward, actors often collaborate in small arthouse films, for free. Compared to other labour markets, Bille and Jensen (2018) noted several peculiarities in the actor’s market through an excess of supply of talent, low income on average, a skewed income dis- tribution, and next to no impact of formal education on success. Due to poor earning capacity, the authors of this study found over 50% of stage, film and relat- ed actors, and directors were forced to leave their occupation of choice after 2 years, which is fastest compared to other artists (Bille & Jensen, 2018). Maxwell et al. (2018), however, argued a deeper issue for those who stayed the course: “radical insecurity” overtime is a social existence that is denied access to benefits and is one that leaves employees in the “very paradigm of ‘precarity’” (p. 163). The authors in this study also pointed out that further challenges from the phenomenon of an “arrested development”, whereby a sense of “‘playful- ness’ demanded of the actor ‘seeps’ into the rest of their lives” (p. 156) and contributes to a feeling of marginalization; thus impacting an actor’s sense of self-worth and identity. In a landmark study that examined the impact of acting on university student actors, Burgoyne et al. (1999) found a blurring of boundaries between the “self” and “role” in the hard-to-discern loop between theatre and life, which might not only lead to emo- tional distress in students but also can result in an actor carrying negative aspects of a character into daily life. This ties into research produced by Seton (2008) who raised the concern of student actors tap- ping into a character’s trauma to authentically build and develop the role, an acting strategy that can become problematic. Similarly, research by Thomson and Jaque (2012), which examined professional and pre-professional actors who underwent intensive training, found the process that engages “enhanced attention, memory, concentration, imagination, emotional expression, physical action, and intellectual analysis” (p. 361), as well as an oscillation between “me” and “not me” to create a character, could leave actors partic- ularly vulnerable to increased dysregulation, boundary-blurring, and identity destabilization. Indeed, this research suggested that actors might be unaware that personal trauma responses could be triggered as they used themselves to portray a char- acter; thus generating negative effects on well-being (Thomson & Jaque, 2012). Theory-guided career counselling interventions for actors When it comes to an actor’s health and well-being, the career factors of unstable employment, challenging work conditions, and income insecurity pose signifi- cant issues and can cause real distress. The following section will explore the career counselling techniques of Holland’s (1997) theory of types, Cochran’s (1997) narrative career counselling theory, and Krumboltz’s (1996) social learning theory approaches, which coun- sellors can use to tap into important areas that have implications for an actor’s short and long-term well- being, as well as working practice. Using theory of types The use of Holland’s (1997) theory of types can pro- vide a framework for career-related problems encoun- tered in the acting profession. To start with, Holland’s (1997) theory of types is based on the notion that individuals seek occupations that fit their broad personality. Depicted on a hexagon model to better understand the relationship between person and environment, Holland developed six cat- egories defined as, realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, and conventional, which match a personality type to their work environment (Sharf, 2013). Holland’s view, that personality types flourish in matched environments highlights the key construct of “vocational interest,” where choice in a career is aligned with a person’s interest. In this case, the actor as an “artistic” individual, who enjoys freedom of expression and unstructured activities in an “artistic” workplace environment, such as the entertainment industry, lends to the idea that “career choice and career adjustment both represent an extension of per- son’s personality” (Sharf, 2013, p. 119), which, in turn, helps both the actor and counsellor think of alternative work options within the artistic environ- ment. An artistic client working in the acting indus- try, could, for example, emphasize the importance of storytelling, performance, and emotional expression in a counselling session. Instead of worksheets and written materials, this expressive individual might prefer a non-structured approach, a discussion, that 58 Australian Journal of Career Development 30(1) makes clear “their excitement centers on their creative activity” (Sharf, 2013, p. 122). When it comes to assessing the behaviour of artistic clients, they are “likely to rely on emotions in their discussion of career issues and to see the choice process as affective rather than logical” (Sharf, 2013, p. 122). For a counsellor, out of Holland’s (1997) four explanatory constructs defined as congruency, differ- entiation, consistency, and identity, the construct of “identity” is key to identifying how stable and realis- tic an actor’s goals might be within the acting profes- sion. While an actor’s “artistic personality type” is congruent with working in an “artistic environment,” the actor remains frustrated with the lack of work and has much to share about coping with the stress of the industry. However, since actors often do not have a chance to express their distress with peers and col- leagues, a counselling session can provide the oppor- tunity to address this issue and compare experiences with other performers. An actor who works in a profession that facilitates a destabilization of identity will require a counsellor to be aware of this construct in order to help them work through industry discrepancies and what it might mean to pursue a career in this profession. With this tool, a counsellor can help create a space between the actor as “self” and “other” to rebuild a stable sense of identity. Needing to help improve an actor’s congruency to a demanding workplace, Holland’s (1997) theory of types can be a useful tool for actors to better understand themselves, as well as for the counsellor as a way to classify and organize relevant information. Using narrative career counselling theory In this artistic medium, since actors create, perform, and express stories through their “characters”, story- telling through Cochran’s (1997) narrative career counselling theory could be a suitable approach to address daily symptoms of stress and anxiety found with this population. In Cochran’s (1997) narrative career counselling theory, the client is positioned as the protagonist, or the leading character so to speak, in a story. In a collaborative and interactive process between the client and counsellor, and based on Cochran’s (1997) seven components, the client is able to approach their own career story from an out- sider’s perspective. The first three episodes work toward meaning-making: elaborate a career problem, compose a life history, and elicit a future narrative (Sharf, 2013). The next three episodes, construct a reality, change a life structure, and enact a role, focus on being active, while the last episode is the crystallization of a decision (Sharf, 2013). To illustrate this approach, take the situation of an individual who started to act late in life. After pursuing the acting dream through local productions for several years, this person finds themselves dissatisfied with their career prospects. At first, this actor found bit parts provided a sense of meaning, but was not prepared to compete against actors in a similar age group who had considerably more experience, a scenario compounded by low paying parts and years of struggle. This actor regrets not pursuing the acting profession earlier and now might consider acting school to become a well- rounded actor. According to Sharf (2013), “because narrative counselling is a thorough approach” (p. 299), this approach allows the client to interpret and construct meaning from their story as well as recon- struct the outcome of the story that can be applied to their career. It also allows the client to stay in control of the narrative and in turn find that they can better control the outcomes of their lives. Through a narrative model that helps create dis- tance between the client and the problem, Cochran’s (1997) first component, allows the client to elaborate on the career problem. Considering the significant challenges that actors face, some questions could start with the issue of rejection. To whom do actors turn when they are turned down for a role, and how does the uncertainty of the acting industry affect an actor’s self-esteem? Through discussion and journal- ing, methods that will help alleviate some distress, the counsellor and client can investigate issues that cause actors to be disturbed and discouraged while simulta- neously inviting the client to take a different perspec- tive on these events to create new meaning. In an industry where aspiring actors find them- selves more often between jobs than employed by the acting job itself, actors can feel socially isolated and misunderstood. The counselling process will offer a safe environment for actors to share reflective insights into their craft. The second component offered by Cochran’s (1997) theory, composing a life history, allows the counsellor to find moments when the client was not only competent but confi- dently employed as an actor in a demanding industry, while Cochran’s (1997) third component of creating a future narrative becomes possible through the strengthening of the client’s interests, values, and per- sonhood, where the client can now foresee a positive outcome in their future. As the client moves forward to the next stage, the narrative-based approach will not only help actors better resolve feelings of fear, worry, and anxiety, but also allow them to perceive their career story in a new light and begin to improve their health and well-being. Using social learning theory Krumboltz’s (1996) social learning theory focuses on cognition and behaviour when it comes to individuals making effective career decisions, while keeping in mind genetic influences, environmental conditions, learning experiences, and task-approach skills (Sharf, 2013). Based on associative learning, as Chen and Jagtiani 59 individuals often make generalizations about occupa- tions. The task-approach skills component, which includes setting goals, values clarification, generating alternatives, and obtaining occupational information, in particular, will benefit actors who often have to take on part-time work in between acting jobs. For example, the actor might generalize through self- observation that they are good at acting, and this might determine their career behaviour, but it might not generalize accurately to opportunities in the acting business. To assist this client facing career issues in the acting field, the counsellor can help iden- tify the accuracy of the client’s observations “by a combination of the quantity of experiences, the rep- resentativeness of the experiences, and the task- approach skills that an individual uses in evaluating these experiences” (Sharf, 2013, p. 359). In Krumboltz’s view, “how an individual approaches a task depends on previous experience and influences the outcome of the task” (Sharf, 2013, p. 357). Often, actors apply oral communication skills, creative problem-solving abilities, and task- approach skills learned in acting school or on-the- job to assist with personal learning experiences. For actors who perceive there is less acting work in every- day life, and worry about their ability to get acting jobs, and therefore worry about their future, the task- oriented approach allows the actor to shift focus away from the precariousness of the industry by reflecting on questions grounded in the present, such as: why are you here, what brought you to this profession, and how do you cope with the pressures of the industry? Actors might observe their innate abilities and prior learning experience and use this approach in their career decision-making process. To cope with the ups and downs in the auditioning for roles, actors can hone their talent other areas, such as retail or the hospitality industry, to lessen the negative impact of repeated audition rejection, or reframe how they approach the acting industry with a more positive mindset. There are several strategies that counsellor can use to challenge inaccurate thoughts. Since actors often experience themselves as being marginal, the counsel- lor can counter troublesome beliefs, such as “I’m not good enough” and reframe the situation as “just because you have not landed a role yet does not mean you will not nail a role soon” to replace nega- tive thoughts with positive self-talk and strengthen positive beliefs. Other methods include the discussion and presentation of role models from the acting industry who have had similar experiences to help the client make decisions. In tandem, the counsellor can draw attention to the actor’s natural skills and abilities when it comes to making alternative career decisions. Krumboltz (2009) also described the happenstance learning theory, a taking advantage of chance events, which replaces indecision and encourages open- mindedness through the skills of curiosity, persis- tence, flexibility, optimism, and risk-taking as a way to explore unexpected positive outcomes that occurs in a person’s life and career (Sharf, 2013). In this theory that “recognizes the importance of chance events in people’s lives,” an emphasis is placed on learning (Sharf, 2013, p. 366). In a constantly chang- ing work environment, the key is to help individuals use “learning strategies to cope with unexpected even- ts” (Sharf, 2013, p. 359). Instead of seeing an event as a setback, a client, through this approach, can reframe the chance event and take advantage of a new opportunity. Take, for example, the actor who lands a part that is scheduled to film during a planned period away from work, such as for a holiday. The counsellor can explore the learning experience and facilitate discussions around work adjustment and help resolve dilemmas. For actors who might have miscalculated their chance of success, and are struggling with the insecurity of unemployment, a counsellor can help build the skills of curiosity, persistence, and optimism, and encourage clients to explore other options to improve their life situation. For the actor who prefers the flexibility of design- ing schedules on their terms, taking advantage of time off between roles might allow room for increas- ing social support experiences. A social learning approach, understood through Krumboltz’s (1996) social learning theory, can help actors navigate the everyday precarity found in challenging workplace conditions. Career counselling programs for actors There is a clear requirement for career interventions focused on the unique needs and challenges faced by professional actors. In the U.S., The Actor’s Career Transition Program (ACTP) based in New York ena- bles performers to explore their career goals and gain access to meaningful work experiences while remain- ing in the acting profession, preparing for a second career or both (Ormont, 1989). The client receives three to 10 individual sessions with a career counsel- lor, plus workshops which include resume writing, interview techniques and job search strategies and others to introduce them to alternate career fields. If needed, they may enrol in additional training clas- ses to improve their computer skills, learn how to teach English as a second language, and practice free- lance writing or publishing. If considering a career change or part-time employment, the counsellor draws upon the actors’ strong transferrable skills such as public speaking, writing, memorizing, selling and interviewing (The Career Center, 2019). This pro- gram also offers support groups for actors in the job search process, which participants report provides them with encouragement and a renewed sense of purpose (Ormont, 1989). 60 Australian Journal of Career Development 30(1) In many North American cities, it is difficult to find programs which support the career pursuits of actors exclusively; however, there are counselling services which cater to the needs of artists and enter- tainers more generally. There are several noteworthy commonalities between professional actors and other artists including having a sense of calling to their cre- ative work, as well as the challenges of audition uncertainty, facing discrimination, and financial instability (Nicholson et al., 2015; Brooks & Daniluk, 1998). However, unlike professional dancers who typically leave this work in their mid-30s, acting, music and visual arts and can be pursued as life-long careers (Ormont, 1989). These shared career experi- ences facilitate the sharing of career interventions and programs among artists and actors. One such pro- gram in Canada is YES-Montreal, which offers group career workshops and individual career counselling to artists. One of the workshops employs various self-assessment activities to facilitate career exploration based on suitability (e.g. Holland’s types). The one-on-one counselling builds upon this career exploration while strengthening other business and soft skills required to succeed as a professional artist (Yes Employment & Entrepreneurship, 2020). These additional skills are integral to develop, though less often a focus compared to the level of creativity and talent required to perform professionally (Valverde et al., 2020). In addition to career programs, many existing, established career interventions are appropriate for creative clients in the arts and entertainment industry. These include using self-assessment and instruments geared towards career exploration using Holland’s RIASEC types or measurement systems such as the Creative Profiler 2.0, a battery of validated psycho- metric tests to help actors become aware of their strengths and weaknesses in promoting their perfor- mance careers (Lubart et al., 2013). The Creative Profiler 2.0 draws upon resources including cognitive abilities, personality traits, socio-emotional factors and environmental conditions; which, taken together, offer a perspective about how to build one’s unique career path (Valverde et al., 2020). When addressing the assessment of career interests and aptitudes according to the Holland types, counsellors might consider other sources of work in which an actor might engage, including part-time and temporary work (Holland, 1985). Using this data along with specific narrative techniques helps the counsellor and client create a “unifying life portrait” their career stories (Savickas, 2015, p.65). By interweaving narrative counselling techniques, clients can become the “heroes” of their career stories, ensuring their eco- nomic stability but pursuing part-time or temporary “side hustle” work without compromising their com- mitment to their craft (Brooks & Daniluk, 1998). While away from the performance work that they feel is their “calling,” they may have a secondary interest or ability which could be pursued in the meantime while being quite satisfying (Brooks & Daniluk, 1998, Ormont, 1989). When employing narrative career techniques, the counsellor can help their clients’ creative, performa- tive or story-telling interests shine (Lengelle & Meijers, 2014). It has been suggested that the use of narrative guided imagery can be very helpful for these clients to process upcoming career challenges or to create a meaningful future career image (Hartung & Vess, 2016). The client and the counsellor co- construct “scripts” for the guided imagery in session, focused on interactions or scenes of effective problem-solving (Skovholt et al., 1989). These may include scripting an upcoming audition or difficult conversations with a director. Another creative, expressive technique which actors may find beneficial involves making a three-scene “story-board” of their career similar to the story boards created for movie directions, which helps to clarify their personal work meaning and societal value of their work (Law, 2012). Their acting background and industry experience may increase the engagement in these techniques and strengthen the therapeutic alliance with their counsel- lor. Adopting a strength-focused lens, the career counselling can draw upon existing skills and interests to help the client scaffold their performance career story, integrate their career identity and make sense of navigating career challenges. Conclusion Perhaps the greatest stressor for actors is the uncer- tainty of employment associated with their profes- sion. The complex barriers of erratic employment, challenging work conditions, and insecure income often leave actors vulnerable to higher levels of anx- iety, and, through the nature of the profession, might even destabilize personal identity. While it is difficult for actors to maintain well- being while working in their industry, career counsel- ling interventions through Holland’s (1997) theory of types, Cochran’s (1997) narrative career counselling theory, and Krumboltz’s (1996) social learning theory can help the actor better clarify and distinguish iden- tities, create space between personal well-being and career well-being, navigate changes within their pro- fession, and, perhaps most importantly, find ways to better cope with career transitions to build resilience. To better shape an actor’s career and personal well-being, enhance the art of acting, and provide insight to both actor and counsellor, further research on the acting profession on a global scale in the per- formance arts industries will help tailor interventions and shed light on the complex barriers faced by this population. Chen and Jagtiani 61 Declaration of conflicting interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Funding The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This article was supported in part by a Research Grant awarded to Prof. Charles P Chen from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (Standard Grant Program, Award No. 410–2009- 2394). ORCID iD Charles P Chen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8826-2480 References Bhattacharyya, R. (2018). #Metoo movement: An aware- ness campaign. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change , 3 , 1–14. https://ssrn.com/ abstract=3175260 Bille, T., & Jensen, S. (2018). Artistic education matters: Survival in the arts occupations. Journal of Cultural Economics , 42 , 23–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10824- 016-9278-5 Boguszak, J. 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