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Altars, Precincts, and Temples: Medieval and Modern Zoroastrian Praxis Author(s): Jamsheed K. Choksy Source: Iran , 2006, Vol. 44 (2006), pp. 327-346 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/4300716 JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms Taylor & Francis, Ltd. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Iran This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms ALTARS, PRECINCTS, AND TEMPLES: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ZOROASTRIAN PRAXIS By Jamsheed K. Choksy Indiana University There has been constant scholarly discussionrituals. over theIt did not and does not, however, have to be years about fires, fire altars, fire precinctsconstantly-burning and fire fire, or have to be one of the highes temples in ancient Zoroastrianism or Mazdaism ritual(see rank, nor be tended solely by the Zoroastrian mdbeddn Choksy 2007). Far less attention has been paid to those (from Old Persian magupati, Middle Persian mowbeddn), ritual objects and locales during medieval and modem "magi", or clergy. In practice, an atashgdh did not times when Zoroastrianism became a minority faith. have to be an enclosed building but could even This article examines why and how the ritual settingsbe anholy for outdoor fire precinct--as is demonstrated by archeological fires have endured and changed among Zoroastrians. The remains from various periods of Iranian history fire temples of the Parsis of the Indian subcontinent are(Chosky 2007). Its ritual layout thus broadly much better known to scholars (for exampleparallels see Boydthose of the urwisgdh, "place of the ritua and Kotwal 1983; Dastur and Mistree 2002; table", Kotwalor yazishngdh, "place of the rituals for worship", 1974; Kotwal and Boyd 1991; Modi 1937;where notable magi perform high liturgies inside fire temples, and2004). exceptions are Boyce 1966, 1968, 1977; Langer the barashni7mgdh, "place of purification", which So the textual and visual data in this article will focus used to be located on the outskirts of towns until more on situations in medieval and modem Iran and in premodemrn times, after which those places came to be contemporary diaspora communities in the West. built adjacent to, and connected with, fire temples so that priests would not have to mingle with nonbelievers after purificatory rituals. So dtashgdh, urwisgdh, TERMINOLOGY, RITUAL OBJECTS, AND yazishngdh and barashnumgdh, although having DEVOTIONAL LOCATIONS functional differences, share structural parallels as places separated from the surroundings and made pure A Zoroastrian phrase, still used in Newfor Persian, religious purposes (Choksy 2003). dtashgdh (also pronounced ateshgdh) derives Another from term used in conjunction with dtashgdh is New Middle Persian or Pahlavi atakhshgdh, reflecting anPersian Old itashkada (also pronounced cteshkade), "room Persian and Avestan nominative singular atarsh, of the fire, house of the fire", commonly "fire", translated plus Old Persian gdthu and Avestan gdtu, gdtav, "place, as "fire temple", deriving from Middle space", from Indo-European *gwa-, "to come, Persian dtakhshkadag and kadag datakhsh, originating base" fromterm (Watkins 2000: 33). The Avestan and Old Persian Old Persian and Avestan atarsh plus Old Persian atar- also produced the Middle Persian and New*katha and Avestan kata "room, small house". Late Persian Sasanian word dtur or ddur, "fire", the Parthian form dtar period and early Muslim period, hence sixth (later through twelfth century, Zoroastrian texts in Pahlavi dar) which is still utilised in Iranian dialects (occasion- ally as adar), and came to be pronounced as dzar (occa- preserve the altemrnate terms mdn i dtakhsh and khjnag I atakhsh sionally as azar) after the Arab Muslim conquest denoting "house of the fire, residence of the fire, of Iran fire temple", the latter term yielding the New Persian during the seventh century. Consequently dturgdh, dtargdh, ddurgdh, ddargdh and dzargdh all words dtashkhdna (also pronounced dteshkhdne) and have been used to denote places or precincts in which such fires(also pronounced ateshkhdn) (Boyce 1989c: atashkhdn burn on fire altars or in fire pits (contra Boyce9).1989b: Usage indicates 7, these terms have consistently been who equates these terms with dtashddn on which utilised to denote a building housing one or more holy see fires within below). A fire that bums in an dtashgdh is regarded as enclosed precincts, and so with very few exceptions they should be translated as "fire temple" spindg, from Old Iranian *spanta- and Indo-European (contra Boyce 1989a: 2; 1989c: 9). *kwen-, "holy", and utilised for Mazdean or Zoroastrian This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 328 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES By the fifteenth century as was said to be attested takht-neshast, in "enthroned". the Persia Contemporary Revdyats, "Treatises" (written 1478-1773) (2.18), Zoroastrians in the Yazd region of Iran now substitute the Zoroastrians in Iran were using the phrases dar-e mehr Dari word kalak, "clay altar", for dtashddn because fire and dar be-mehr both meaning "court of Mithra". These altars were often made from baked clay, although stone probably derive from Old Iranian *maithrydna or also was used in ancient to medieval times and metal *mithradana, rendered as mithraion in an Egyptian became popular from premodern times onward. papyrus record from the third century B.C. and later as Zoroastrians in the Kerman region now frequently utilise the Armenian word mehean, "place of Mithra, temple", the word maghreb borrowed from Muslim piety (where and serve as equivalents in common parlance for the it denotes the western direction of the evening prayer technical terms for fire temples-i.e., for the buildings performed at sunset) for a fire altar, preserving the notion that house holy fires within enclosed precincts (Russell that an altar and the fire on it form an icon via which 1987: 263 with references; Boyce 1993). Mithra (later worship is directed to the creator deity Ahura Mazda. Mihr, Mehr) as the Indo-Iranian and, later, Zoroastrian Zoroastrian books in Middle Persian also mention the divinity of contracts and covenants was believed to adisht, "place of fire", originally the "domestic hearth", traverse the sky "in front of the immortal, swift but now pronounced ddosht or adhokhsh and used in stallioned sun" with "the radiant fire of liturgical glory reference to the fire altar in the Dari spoken by contem- before him" (Yasht, "Devotional Poem" 10.13, 10.127). porary Zoroastrians of Iran (Boyce 1989b: 7). The Parsis So that spirit's association, through name and site, with call the fire holder an dfrinagdnyu or afargdnyu, "place the fires in the presence of which Zoroastrians-clergy for blessings", based on a loan word from New Persian and laity alike-perform devotions directed at Ahura into Gujarati. Mazda (Ahura Mazda, later Ohrmazd) and lesser divine The Yasna (17.11) mentions a five-tiered spiritual spirits fit the faith's religiosity (compare Russell 1987: ranking of holy fires (see further Boyce 1989a: 3) which 262, 265-66). Indeed, even in the ninth century, the may have been incorporated into that scripture by the magus Zadspram had employed the term dar to refer to Parthian or Arsacid period (238 B.C.-224 A.D.). The the court of the fire temple (Wizidagihd 29.4). Authors ridivddd, "Code to Ward Off Evil Spirits" (8.81-96), a of the Persian Revdyats (1.230) used another portion of Young Avestan text codified during Achaernenian times the phrase, mehr, to denote the fire temple. The phrases provides the first scriptural reference to creation of a dar-i mehr and dar be-mehr are still popular among holy fire of the highest ritual grade-possibly termed Zoroastrians in Iran, India, and even the United States of *dtar varathraghan, "victorious fire", in Old Persian, America and Canada, for referring to their current, definitely attested as adar warahran in Parthian and functional, fire temples. Yet another word for a fire dtakhsh wahrdm in Middle Persian, and called New temple building, namely agiari, commonly rendered as Persian and Parsi Gujarati dtash bahrdm, "fire of agiary, arose among the Parsis of India through the Verethraghna (Vorathraghna) or Wahram" the yazata of translation of dtashkada into the Gujarati language in victory-within an daitydgatu, called dddgdh in Middle premodemrn times. Persian, "fixed place or appropriate precinct", which Within an dtashgdh or dtashkada, the fire itself was apparently was another term for an dtarshgdtu, by placed on a concave brazier in a receptacle. That vessel purification and fusion of flames that previously had has consistently been designated in New Persian as an been used for sixteen different functions. The same text dtashddn, usually translated as "fire altar" (which will be noted that holy fires should be kept free from impurities, used in this discussion), less commonly as "fire holder", tended with care, and that magi should perform all such from Middle Persian dtakhshdan and Parthian rites while wearing a paitidana (later rendered as *dtardshan preserved in Armenian as atrushan (Boyce Parthian *patam, Middle Persian paddm, New Persian 1975: 456; 1989b). The term reflects an Old Persian and pandm, Parsi Gujarati padan), "mouth and nose mask", Avestan nominative singular dtarsh plus stdna, "place". so as not to pollute the flames with breath (Vidcvddd Thus dtashddn may best be translated as "fire stand" 8.73-74, 18.1; see further Choksy 1989: 84-85 with fig. since Indo-European *sta-, "to stand", yielded both stdna 12). That practice was commented on by Strabo (c. 64 and its cognate stand (compare Watkins 2000: 84). By B.C.-25 A.D.) who noted magi avoided their breath premodern times, the phrase takht-e dtash was being blowing over holy fires (Geography 15.3.14). In the employed as a euphemism for the altar on which a fire same passage, Strabo observed that "they make This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms ALTARS, PRECINCTS, AND TEMPLES: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ZOROASTRIAN PRAXIS 329 Syriac offerings to fire by adding dry wood without barkmartyrologies and (Choksy 2002: 87, 92 with by placing fat on top of it". A stone panel from the references). Stepped dtashddn (i.e., ones with broad, temple complex for Ahura Mazda, Mithra stepped, and Anahita tops bearing shallow hemispherical fire bowls or braziers) at Bard-e Neshanda in Khuzestan, dating after 140 B.C., may have been converted into altars for depicts a magus wearing a *patam while crosses pouring an as evidenced by stamp seals (Brunner 1978: offering into the flame of a small *jtardshan 120-21 with fig. 139; Gignoux and Gyselen 1982: 40 (Schippmann 1971: 251-58 with fig. 37; Kawami 1987: The situation gained momentum after with pl. 3.10.17). 182-83 with pl. 26; in general Godard 1949). the Arab Muslim conquest (seventh century) of Iran as Ritual grades of fire seem to have been standardised urban Iranians adopted Islam between the eighth through by the Sasanian magi (Schippmann 1971: 510-13; tenth centuries and that faith spread among rural folk Vitalone 2004: 425), and those ranks are still retained by from the tenth through thirteenth centuries (Choksy Zoroastrians. At the beginning of the Sasanian period, 1997: 106-9). Though some continued to function after distinction existed between flames ofadtakhsh wahram or the fourteenth century (Tirmidhi 1950), most fire adur i wahrdm rank and fires called ddurcn-which may precincts and temples eventually were either transformed reflect the second grade of ritual fire (with hearth fires into mosques, destroyed, or abandoned. During Sasanian being unmentioned) or else simply denoting all other times (224-651), the chahdr t0q, "four arches" style- holy fires tended by magi-both within Iran and outside technically four columns supporting a gumbad, "domed its borders. These types of holy fires were mentioned by roof' (a term which eventually came to serve as a the third century high magus Kirdir (Sar Mashhad alternate for chahdr tdq), and forming a hall or portico inscription 3, 17, Naqsh-e Rostam inscription 5, 12, 18, whose four sides were open, yet often surrounded by 34, 44, Ka 'ba-ye Zardosht inscription 2, 5, 6-7, 11, 13, ambulatory corridors and other roofed ritual precincts, 14, 15, and Naqsh-e Rajab inscription 23). By late storage rooms, and congregational halls-had become Sasanian times there clearly was a secondary grade of the quintessential architectural form for an ctakhshgdh or ritual flame known as dtakhsh adardn, "fire of fires", or fire precinct (see also Schippmann 1971: 504-6; Boyce simply Jdaran, and eventually a tertiary ritual grade 1975: 464). The chahdr tdq style with its domed roof passed into Muslim religious architecture with domed called adurog i dddgdh, "small fire in a fixed place", or simply dddgdh. Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 325-395 mosques eventually replacing hypostyle ones. It may C.E.), among other classical authors, noted that magi also have influenced representations of the mehrdb, tended ever-burning fires (History 23.6.34). Yet only "prayer niche" (Melikian-Chirvani 1990). When a holy &takhsh wahrim had to burn constantly according to fire died out, its extinguishment was euphemistically religious stipulation. Flames of the ddaran and dadgdh referred to as going "to sleep" (khuftan). Often as ritual grades could and would periodically be allowed to Muslims restored the buildings, Sasanian period infra- burn out (see also Boyce 1975: 462-63; 1979: 110). structure was covered over with newer bricks and tiles- and can still be glimpsed at these sites such as the masjed-e jdme' at Isfahan when modem renovations TRANSFORMATION AND CONTINUITY IN require removal of early Islamic overlays. MEDIEVAL TIMES With some exceptions that will be noted, most trans- formations during the early Islamic period seem to have occurred When Zoroastrians in Iran began to adopt other peacefully as votaries switched to Islam and faiths, dtashgdh and dtashkada became symbols of the oldtheir places of worship to suit new beliefs remodelled order that had to be changed. The first signs of and praxes-a situation also known from the transfor- mation were seen in Armenia where Zoroastrian fire Islamisation of the Christian Middle East (Choksy 1997: precincts were transformed into churches at locales like 96, 98). Moreover, as settlements lost residents' confes- Ejmiacin and Dvin as residents converted to Christianity sional alliance to Islam, there was gradual diminishment after the year 300 (Russell 1987: 486-90; Choksy 1997: in contributions to the pious foundations that supported 70). In Sasanian Iran itself, converts to Nestorianism the dtashkada which, consequently, often fell into deliberately extinguished holy fires on occasion, whiledisrepair. Muslim authorities capitalised on those conditions by restricting repairs even if funds became refusing to return to Zoroastrianism-resulting in their martyrdom at the hands of magi as documented in the available-thereby hastening the ruin of Zoroastrian This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 330 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Fig. 1. Seljuk Madrasa bu Zoroastrian fire temple, fires temples (Choksy in 1119 (Matheson 1997: 1979: 178). The A 98-99). same few occurred atexample the different provinces oftown of Yazd-e Iran Khast (Matheson and from 1979:various 180-81). The tim be cited as pertinent 'Abbasid period (750-1258) hypostyle masjed, evidence. The masjed-e "mosque", jdme' at atthe Na'in (Fig. 2) also originated city of from an Urmiya Azerbaijan appears to itashkada. have been built over an exist chahar taq in the thirteenth century (Matheson 197 The massive fire temple of Adur Gushnasp at Tak Sulayman closed sometime in the tenth century, pro from a dearth of votaries to support its functions, an then utilised by Muslims of different ethnic backgrounds-including the Mongols-for religious and secular purposes (Osten and Naumann 1961: 64; Choksy 1997: 99). One abandoned late medieval or early premodern atashgih may have been at Dar-e Shahr in Lurestan (compare Vanden Berghe 1979: 128-29). A twelfth century Seljuk, theological college known as the madrasa-ye Hayd-iriya (Fig. 1) in the eastern quarter of the Qazvin city, is still known as the itashkada from which the Muslim institution of learning was constructed (Matheson 1979: 55). Likewise the Seljuk masjed-e jdme', "congregational mosque", at Qazvin stands over the foundations of another dtashkada. The fire temple dedicated to Anahita at Kangavar (Concobar) had fallen into disuse, been abandoned by Zoroastrians, and became a brigand hideout by the early thirteenth century (according to the Arab author Yiqiit who wrote about the site between 1212-1229). An dtashkada serving the town of Farahan, between Qum and Hamadan, had its fire extinguished on orders of a Muslim Turkish governor in 895. Another dtashkada at the village of Mazdijan, near Qum, was demolished by the same governor in 901 (Choksy 1997: 97). The main fire temple at Yazd in Fig. 2. Abbasid Mosque built on site ofZoroastrian fire central Iran was torn down and a masjed-ejame' erected temple and renovated by Seljuks, Na'in. This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms ALTARS, PRECINCTS, AND TEMPLES: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ZOROASTRIAN PRAXIS 331 The dtashgdh of one of the fire temples village at Isfahan of Sharifabad in 1174 to burn inconspicuously became the mehrdb room of that city's 'Abbasid congre- within side chambers of mudbrick atashgdh, safe from extinguishment gational mosque in the eighth century and was eventually by zealous Muslims (Boyce 1977: 2-6; 1989a:(Godard renovated by the Seljuks in the eleventh century 5; 1989c: 10, who dates the relocations to 1937: 20, 170; Shokoohy 1985: 546; Choksy 1997:later). slightly 98). How and why the temple complex for The other ctashkada at the pinnacle of the citadel Anahita at Bishapur with its urwisgah and dtakhshgdh functioned into the tenth century (Ibn Rusta, for Kitdb al-fire ceased functioning is not fully clear. water and a'ldq al-nafisa, 153), before being abandoned and But the site was reused by Muslims and the fire altar's stepped three eventually reused as a watch tower by the Mongols base was incorporated into a medieval hundred years later (Siroux 1965; Barthold 1984: building's wall (Girshman 1954: 323-24 with pl. 41c, 154-55). The masjed-e birun, "outer mosque", 1962: 149-51). at the town of Abarkuh in central Iran also dates to the ninth The Muslim city of Shiraz had three itashkada built century and represents the restructuring of an originalby Zoroastrians who moved to that locale when Qasr-e fire temple (Godard 1938b; Shokoohy 1985: 562 withAbu Nasr began to decline. The two fire temples inside pls. 23-28; Choksy 1997: 97). The masjed-e jdme'at the the city's walls and the one at a city gate seem to have town of Aqda developed from a fire temple there in the outlasted the turmoil of Zoroastrian uprisings there in the eleventh or twelfth century (Shokoohy 1985: 567 with ninth and tenth centuries and functioned into the pls. 30-33; Choksy 1997: 97-98). The masjed-ejdme'atfourteenth century, for that city's magi were extolled by Natanz was constructed within the perimeter of a the poets Sa'di (c. 1200-92) and Hafez (1326-89) (Barthold 1984: 155; Choksy 1997: 38, 134 with Sasanian fire temple during the early fourteenth century (Godard 1936: 82-103; Matheson 1979: 172). The references). A Parthian period fire temple, with Seljuk period masjed-ejdme', where a stucco inscription Achaemenian antecedents, restored during Sasanian dates to 1136 at the town of Zavara reflects the architec- times, was used as a mosque and Muslim burial ground tural incorporation of a chahdr tdq (Matheson 1979: after Arabs captured the city of Kermanshah (FEZANA 172-73). The chahdr tdq at Ardestan, also, was incorpo- Journal 18, 4, 2005: 30 with photograph). By the hill rated into the mehrib room of a masjed-ejdme' prior to near the town of Nowdaran stand the remains of a small the eleventh century (Matheson 1979: 174). chahar tdq (Matheson 1979: 256 with references) The Sasanian family's fire temple ofAdur Anahid at renovated and adapted for Muslim worship during the Istakhr was transformed into the masjed-e Sulayman Safavid period (1501-1722). On Khark island in the shortly after that city's conquest in 649. Bull capitals Persian Gulf an itakhshkadag, dating from the early symbolising Verethraghna which once decorated fourth century, was turned into a mosque during the first columns of the fire temple continued to grace the centuries of Arab Muslim rule (Matheson 1979: 246). hypostyle mosque (al-Mas'tidi, Murtj al-dhahab wa The ayvin or iwdn, "barrel vaulted", masjed-e jdme' at ma 'ddin al-jawhar, 4.76-77; see also Choksy 1997: 95, Neyriz, bearing a mehrab inscription dating to 973 began 97). The holy fire of that royal family was safeguarded in 951 on the site of a Sasanian fire temple as well. by magi, however, and continued to burn in a smaller The itashkada at Kerman city was changed into a temple at Istakhr. The temple of Adur Farrobay was masjed-e jame' in 651 (Vaziri Kermani, Tcrikh-e razed in 670 on the orders of the Umayyad governor of Kerman, 31). The highest point of the citadel of Bam Iraq (Choksy 1997: 97 with references). The flame, (Fig. 3, badly damaged by an earthquake in December however, had been divided by magi into two portions 2003) appears to have been the location of a Sasanian hidden to safeguard against extinguishment by Arab chahar tdq atakhshgdh and dtakhshkadag upon which a Muslims. One portion eventually was re-established at Safavid chahdr fasl, "open four cornered building", was Kariyan while the other would be placed on an dtashdan built with a watchtower (Bastani-Parizi 1989: 651). The at Fasa (Ibn al-Faqih, Kitdb al-buldan, 246-47). temple site of Adur Kark0y, taken by Arab Muslim soldiers in 651 under a local treaty, continued to be According to tradition, the Zoroastrian dastur dasturdn, "high priest of priests", moved to the central Iranian served by magi into the eleventh century when its flame village of Torkabad north of Yazd in the twelfth century and altar were commented upon (TIrikh-e Sistan, written (and then to Yazd itself in the eighteenth century). Adur c. 1062, 36-37, 299). It was eventually transformed into Farrdbay and Adur Anahid, were relocated to the nearby a mosque some time after being abandoned as an This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 332 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Fig. 3. Safavid building Zoroastrian fire temple, city-during century itashkada in the thirteenth the late Middle Ages (Boyce 1989a: 5). (Choksy 1997: 24 101; contra Boyce 1979: Many 162, of those had rectangular or barrel where she vaulted double suggests it wa roofs with smallThe demolished by the Mongols). angular smoke holes and pebble large paved temple comple floors (Boyce 1989c: 10).evidence at Kuh-e Khwaja shows limited Zur-e dtash, "ritual offerings of Zoroastria for fire", of animal activity there after c. 700 (Ghanimati 2000: flesh and fat were still being made 145; 2001 during the fifteenth through 146), and its outskirts eventually eighteenth centuries became the burial s of a Muslim saint. The town of Forumad, west of (Persian Revdyats 1.74-76, 1.161-70, 1.261, 1.262, Sabzevar in Khurasan, possesses a Seljuk period 1.264, 1.307, 2.12, 2.70). Yet, from the beginning of the (1037-1157) mosque thought to have been built over an sixteenth century, religious persecution under the Safavids resulted in conversion of the inhabitants of itashkada (Matheson 1979: 198, 298). At Nishapur, Arab Muslim troops demolished the main dtashkada and many Zoroastrian villages to Shi'te Islam and the trans- erected the masjed-ejdme'al-'atiq, "old congregational formation of related fire temples into mosques. Atashdan mosque", in its place around the year 651 (The Histories came to be hidden in inconspicuous side chambers of of Nishapur 66b; see further Choksy 1997: 101, 152 n. itashkada to protect the holy fires, which smoldered 37). A congregational mosque may have been built over under piles of ash, from being squelched (Boyce 1979: a fire temple at Bukhara in 713 by its Arab Muslim 179). European visitors to Iran during the reign of Shah conquerors. Another two mosques followed the same 'Abbas I (ruled 1587-1629) noted that, in 1608, a large pattern of assimilating Zoroastrian religious sites in the number of Zoroastrians were forcibly relocated from the ninth century. Yet, other fire temples continued to Yazd and Kerman areas to the capital city Isfahan to serve as labourers. Shah 'Abbas even had the dastur function in Bukhara, its suburb of Tawais and the village dasturdn executed together with other Zoroastrian of Ramush, into the tenth century with the financial support of Zoroastrians there (Narshakhi, Tarikh-e notables for failing to deliver to the royal court a Bokhard, 23, 29-30, 43, 67-69; see further Choksy legendary manuscript ascribed to the biblical Abraham 1997: 104-5). In the Wakham and Pamir regions (now in (see further Boyce 1979: 177-78, 181 with references; northeastern Afghanistan and Tajikistan), Zoroastrians Chosky 2006: 135-38). Two New Persian designations and their fire rites seem to have lasted until the region fell gabr, "hollow, empty", hence "one lacking faith, under the control of the emirate of Bukhara and its Sunni infidel", and itashparast, "fire worshipper", become rulers in 1898 (Olufsen 1904: 205-06; Scott 1984: 217, widely used slurs against Zoroastrians by Iranian 220). Muslims, despite the formers' protestations starting Adardn and dddgdh fires remained fairly numerous in centuries earlier that: "We worship god. We have our fire western, central and southern Iran-especially in temples and the sun. But it is not the fire or the sun that Zoroastrian villages around the Yazd plain and Kerman we worship. On the contrary, those are to us as the prayer This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms ALTARS, PRECINCTS, AND TEMPLES: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ZOROASTRIAN PRAXIS 333 1600 93-94). niche and the Ka'ba are to you" (T7rikh-e Sistan by a priest named Bahman Kaykobad Sanjana). Similarly, Armenian Christians scorned Zoroastrians for religious rituals were performed using However, most moxrapasht, "worshipping ash" (Russell dadgah 1987: 484). or hearth flames. As the community prospered and its Forcible conversion of Zoroastrians to Shi'ism population increased, some Parsis moved, in coupled 1142 to with destruction of their fire temples and other Navsari places ofon the banks of the Varoli river where worship was decreed by Soltan Hosayn (ruled recent excavations have produced the remains of an 1694-1722), the last Safavid king. Yet not all years were dtashdan. They also spread to the towns of Surat, ones of persecution, for a dedication plaque from the Anklesar, Cambay and Broach. In addition, not all time of Shah 'Abbas records the construction of a khana- Parsis had left Dui where a sizeable community existed ye mehr, "house of Mithra" (an equivalent designation into premodern times. Over the centuries, and under the for dar-i mehr) by the Zoroastrians of Kerman city direction of priests and lay patrons, at least one dtashgah (Boyce 1977: 180; Chosky 2006: 138-41). was established at each town. In India too, like in Iran, The Arab Muslim conquest of Iran triggered the earliest holy fires of the Parsis were housed in small migrations by Zoroastrians. Zoroastrianism had reached mudbrick temples while dadgdh flames were lighted in China by the early sixth century where the religion came open air fire altars, as attested by archeological to be known as Hsien, and its priests or magi were remains-including altars and images on coins-from termed mu-hu-pa (from Middle Persian mowbed). In Navsari, Sanjan and Ajmalgadh (Parihar 2003: 32; 621, an dtakhshkadag (termed hu hsien tz 'u in Chinese) Rivetna 2003: 30). When Sanjan was sacked by the was founded in Changan. After the Arab Muslim Sultan of Gujarat Mahmud Begra (ruled 1458-1511), conquest of Iran in the seventh century there were many around the year 1465 Parsi magi transferred the Iran small, poorly documented migrations away from that Shah itash bahram to a mountain cave at Bahrot, inland country over both land and sea. Some Zoroastrians, from the coast, for twelve years to ensure that it especially Sasanian nobles and military personnel, continued to burn unhindered by Muslims. From Bahrot immigrated eastward through Central Asia to northern the holy flame was moved again, first to the town of China. Other groups of Zoroastrians probably sailed Bansda to the north-east and then to the city of Navsari from Iran to join expatriate communities already present around the year 1479 where-a few brief displacements in southern Chinese port cities like Canton. From China, notwithstanding-it remained as the focus of rituals for small groups even relocated to Japan. At Changan, the over three centuries. After a dispute in 1741 with the number of Itashkada served by magi grew to four or Bhagaria priests who controlled religious activities in five by the ninth century. Between ten to thirteen Navsari, priests of the Sanjana panth, "ecclesiastic dtashkada functioned elsewhere in China until group", who were custodians of that atash bahram Zoroastrianism was proscribed there, together with transferred it south to the city of Udwada. other foreign faiths, in 845. However, Zoroastrians survived in China as late as the middle fourteenth PREMODERN century and may have maintained a few fire temples and TO MODERN HOLY FIRES AND shrines until that time (Leslie 1981-83). By the late FIRE TEMPLES Middle Ages, all those communities either had been completely assimilated into the local populations The or had question of freedom of worship for their Iranian co- died out. religionists occupied the thoughts of Parsis in India so, in 1854 The situation proved different for other groups of they sent an emissary named Manekji Limji immigrants, those who went to India and formed the(1813-90) to Iran. Hataria lived in Iran for four Hataria Parsi, "Persian", community that flourishes decades, to the married an Irani Zoroastrian woman, and even present. About five years, c. 941 after some of themthe Qajar royal court at Tehran to intercede on visited behalf arrived via Dui to Gujarat on the west coast of India, the of the Zoroastrians. Hataria's mission, coupled Parsis consecrated an dtash bahrdm named Iran with pressure on the Qajar dynasty (1779-1925) from Shah, "King of Iran", which remained their main flame for the British Raj on behalf of their subjects the Parsis, more than eight hundred years (according to thesucceeded Qessa- in having the jizya, "poll tax", abolished in e Sanjdn, "Story of Sanjan", a narrative poem Iran in Newin 1882. Freedom of travel was also granted. Iranian Persian based upon an older oral tradition, composed in magi then began travelling to and residing in This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 334 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Fig. 4b. Modern fire temple ofAdur Farrobay, Yazd. Fig. 4a. Adur Farrabay on altar in fire Adur Anahid, which may derive from an Achaemenian precinct, Yazd. period (550-331 B.C.) fire that eventually became the family fire of the Sasanian dynasty at Istakhr, is housed, India for clerical training-a trend that lasted until the usually smoldering as embers under a bed of ash in a later decades of the twentieth century, when the metal fire altar (Fig. 5a), at an itashkada (Fig. 5b) in priesthood within Iran was able to strengthen its organi- Sharifabad, which is now part of urban Ardakan (see sational and didactic bases during the reign of also Siroux 1938: 83-87). Mohammed Reza Shah Pahlavi (1941-79). As a result, Additionally, there are other dtashgdh with fire altars there are several functional fire temples in Iran. In many serving Zoroastrians in the towns and villages around of the premodem rtashkada, entrance to the itashgdh is Yazd (Boyce 1977: 26-27; 69-78; Gotla 1997: 55-70, through a small doorway within a maze of dimly provides an updated map and additional details for each illuminated ambulatory corridors, which serves to location such as whether a magus is in residence; Green restrict access and hide the flame from non-Zoroastrians 2000: 117-19). Holy fires of the ddardn and dddgdh who may threaten its purity or seek to extinguish it. ranks are kept bumrning at most of those dtashkada, often The Yazd region serves as a ritual epicenter. The supervised by a local magus. The village of Mobaraka atash bahrdm, named Adur Farrobay or Adur Khara has a premodem atashkada. At the village of Cham the (Fig. 4a), now bums in a modem itashkada (Fig. 4b) fire bums in a mudbrick atashdan. Khorramshah has built in 1940 at the city of Yazd (see also Godard 1938a: two functioning itashkada, a small premodem one and 15). The original fire temple at that site had dated from a larger one that was renovated in 1996. The dtash at the 1790s was donated by Nasserwanji Kohyar of Surat, Nasrabad bums in a small building. Another is still housed a flame sent overland from India, and had been maintained by a magus at Rahmatabad. Several repaired under the direction of Manekji Limji Hataria dtashkada have been renovated in modem times-such during 1855-56 using funds from Sir Dinshaw Manekji as at Kucha Boyuk (in 1861 and then remodelled in Petit of India. There is no direct evidence that Adur 1890 next to an older premodem fire temple), Zaynabad (in the 1890s), Moryabad or Maryamabad (c. 1900-16), Farr6bay has ever been mingled with any other fire with Qasemabad (in the 1940s, and then remodelled in the the exception, perhaps, of its two parts being reunited (contra Boyce 1977: 80-81). The oldest fire temple, late 1990s) and Ahrestan (in the 1950s). Other fire temples have been built in the nineteenth and twentieth known as the dar-e mehr-e mas, "great court of Mithra", centuries, including ones at Elabad or Allahabad, Kanu at Yazd city, dating from the Safavid period, is now used (built in 1994 on the site of an older one which was mainly as a place for ritual moumrning (compare Boyce demolished in the process), Aliabad (in 1958), 1977: 73; Green 2000: 117). The dtash bahram, called This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms ALTARS, PRECINCTS, AND TEMPLES: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ZOROASTRIAN PRAXIS 335 Fig. 5b. Modern fire temple hall with Adur Andhid in rear cham (left), Ardakan-Sharifabad. Fig. 5a. Adur Anahid on altar in fire precinct, Ardakan-Sharifabad. Fig. 7. Pillar altar for dadgah fire, Taft. Fig. 6. Modern fire temple housing an adaran fire, Taft. This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 336 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Fig. 9. Modern fire temple, T Zoroastrian quarters of Y Siroux 1938: 87-89). There are six major pir province of Yazd, each ha founding Fig. 8. Magus praying before legend dddgdh fireassociated w on modern altar, Pir-ewithstand Sabz Islam. or Also visited by Shi'ite Muslim Chakchak. Iranians, those shrines are Pir-e Nawraki (Nareke), Pir-e Kheyrabad (built in Narestan,now 1958; Pir-e Sabz or Chakchak (Fig. 8), Set-e partially (Se-ta) demolished road widening and so Pir, Pir-e Herisht (Hrisht) and Pir-e Banu nonfunctional), Pars at which (or M Mazra' Kalantar (built in 1991pilgrims perform devotions to replace a (Fischer 1973: 210-15; premodemrn o Nosratabad (in 1938) and Boyce Qal'a-ye 1977: 243-70; Asadan Firouzgary 2000: 9, 12-13, 22, (in 1970s). The town 24, 29-30; of Taft hasGiara 2002: two 173-78 with pls.; fires-an holy Langer 2004: ad with its own, small, 571-72, modem, 588-89, 590-91). temple These often are financed (Fig. by 6) a dddgdh, which is lit private foundations afresh forandceremonies administered by local anjoman, upon a altar (Fig. 7) in a "association". Numerous minor shrines building, contemporary have altars as w resembles well, where neighbourhood fires either bum shrines constantly or found are lighted throughou Fig. 10. Fire precinct inside modern fire temple, Isfahan. This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms ALTARS, PRECINCTS, AND TEMPLES: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ZOROASTRIAN PRAXIS 337 afresh by devotees (Boyce 1977: 82-91; Langer 2004: An adaran flame (Fig. 10) bums in Isfahan city's 573-74, 584-87, 590). A small shrine at Yazd city modem, Assyrian style winged-bull relief flanked, dedicated to Shah Bahram yazad has an dtashdan dtashkada. on Another adardn flame bums in Shiraz city's which a fire can be made by devotees. The village Kerman itashkada. of city (Boyce 1966) has the Banu Abshahi possesses a pir dedicated to Mehr Rostam Yazad.Farrokh Taft atashkada that was opened in 1924 to has the shrine of Baba Sharifaddin. Pillar fire altar bases house an adaran flame (Fig. 11) and a more modem are still used in many shrines, with small metal fire altars atashkada (Fig. 12), both within the same compound. placed upon those bases (compare Langer 2004: 586 Due to state pressure, as part of secularisation, with pls. 13.8, 15.2, 15.4). access to most itashkada in Iran has been open since the The capital city, Tehran, has an adaran flame in the 1960s to members of all faiths, who are requested but Bhika Bahram dtashkada (Fig. 9), constructed between not required to cover their heads and remove footwear 1913-16 with funding from Iranian and Parsi as signs of respect for the fires. But this merely Zoroastrians and refurbished several times thereafter (see formalised a practice noted by Parsi travelers to Iran for also Godard 1938a: 16-17; contra Boyce 1989a: 5, who at least a century prior--one which used to be justified states the flame is of itash bahram rank), where on the basis that the nonbelievers' ancestors had once Zoroastrians pray. The suburb of Tehran Pars has two fire been Zoroastrians forced to adopt Islam. Together with temples-the columned Rostam Baug dtashkada with an open access, yet another change has occurred during the adaran flame and the contemporary-looking Pestonjipast few decades wherein the padydb purificatory ritual Marker dtashkada (Giara 2002: 170 with pl.) with aand koshti (kusti), or holy cord, rite are ever less dadgdh flame. Establishment of fire temples in Iran's frequently performed by Iranian Zoroastrians prior to capital city is a recent phenomenon, however, reflectingentering the presence of a holy fire. So an attenuation in the relocation of Zoroastrians to that national centre from notions of purity and pollution with regard to fire has rural areas during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.taken place. However, Adur Farr6bay is housed in a chamber closed to public access to be viewed through a glass window (Fig. 4a), Adur Anahid resides within an inconspicuous side chamber (Figs. 5a and 5b) that is usually locked while a vacant pillar altar stands in the main precinct under a domed roof, and several other fires are placed within glass-windowed chambers (Figs. 10, 12)--practices reflecting Zoroastrian fears that zealous Muslims still may pollute or extinguish those Fig. 11. Adardn fire on altar in fire precinct of Fig. 12. Adardn fire on altar in fire precinct of modern fire temple, early modern fire temple, Kerman. Kerman. This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 338 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES the exposure area for the spiritual benefit of deceased souls, near each dakhma or funerary tower-such as the fire tower (Fig. 13) at Cham, where the equivalent of a dddgdh flame would be lighted in a domed precinct on the upper level (for other examples see Modi 1937: 69; and Huff 2004: 622-23, 624-25, 627, 629 with pls. 7.6, 9.19, 9.22, 11.25). Beyond Iran's present borders, in 1683 a chahdr tdq within the central courtyard of a walled compound, which has ancillary rooms for rites, priests and storage, was renovated by Zoroastrians at the locality of Surahana near Baku in Azerbaijan (Godard 1938a: 43-44). Although disused by Zoroastrians after the year 1883 as the community around Baku declined in numbers, and utilised by Hindu merchants as their temple for a short while thereafter, a natural gas fire still bums within the columned dtashgdh (Dastur and Punthakey Mistree 2002: 313 with fig. 16). Veneration in the presence of fires fueled by natural gas and naphtha dates back to ancient Iranian praxis, and so now some fires in iran and western countries have firewood supplemented by pipe- borne gas (Figs. 10, 12). The largest number of Zoroastrian holy fires are found in India within fire temples of the Parsis. The Itash bahrdm named Iran Shah now blazes at Udwada, in an Fig. 13. Fire tower atfunerary complex, Cham. ornate fire temple (Giara 2002: 1-2 with pl.) which has been renovated several times, and is the focus of flames as occurred with other fires in medieval and pilgrimage by devout Zoroastrians. There are seven other premodemrn times. Another consequence of westemisa- highest level fires each with its own temple-the Bhagarsath Anjuman dtash bahrdm at Navsari tion was the phasing out of corpse exposure in the 1960s established in 1765 (Fig. 14), the Seth Dadibhay and the concomitant disuse of dtashsuz or sagri, buildings with a windowed chamber from whichNoshirwanji the Dadyseth atash bahrdm at Mumbai (earlier called light of a flame on an altar or pilaster shone through to Bombay) dating to 1783 the Seth Dadibhay Fig. 14. Premodern Bhagarsath Anjuman atash bahrdm fire temple, Navsari, India. This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms ALTARS, PRECINCTS, AND TEMPLES: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ZOROASTRIAN PRAXIS 339 Chowpatty, Noshirwanji Modi atash bahram and the Seth PestonjiColaba, Churchgate, Dadar (East), Fort and Thane, Kalabhay Vakil Kadmi atash bahram at Surat bothplus in cities like Baruch, Chennai (Madras), Hyderabad, established in 1823 the Seth Hormasji Bahmanji Wadia Kolkata (Calcutta), Nagpur, Pune and Secunderabad dtash bahrdm at Mumbai dating from 1830 (Boyd and (Giara 2002 with pls.). Additionally, sixty Kotwal 1983: 295-301), the Seth Cawasji Bahramji temples with only dadgdh flames are supported by Banaji Kadmi dtash bahram at Mumbai set up Zoroastrian in 1845communities in the Andheri (East), Colaba, and the Zarthushti Anjuman Itash bahram at Mumbai Mahim and Vasi among other locales of Jogeshwari, established in 1897 (Giara 2002: 5-13 with pls.).and at Ajmer, Bangalore, Bharuch, Indore, Mumbai, Newddaran Presently there are eighty-two temples housing Delhi and Pune among other cities (Giara 2002 with pls.). flames (pronounced ddaridn in Parsi Gujarati) for There are also fire temples where flames are lighted Shenshais or Rasimis, "traditionalists", eight for afresh when needed for rituals. Those Parsis do Kadmis, "antiquarians", and one for FaslIs, "seasonalists" -the not permit nonbelievers or converts to enter fire temples. Devotees, who must possess Zoroastrian paternity, are three major subsects of Parsis based on calendrical required is differences (Giara 2002 with pls.). Each such temple to don prayer caps or scarves and perform the padydb and often simply referred to as an agiary. They are located in kusti rites before worship (Boyd and Kotwal various neighbourhoods of Mumbai such as 1983: 301-4; Choksy 1989: 53-61). Establishment of Andheri (West), Bandra (East), Breach Candy, Byculla, holy fires would be celebrated by dtash nu git, "song of Fig. 15a. Modern fire temple, Colombo, Sri Lanka. Fig. 15b. Fire precinct, Colombo, Sri Lanka. This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 340 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Fig. 16a. Modern fire t Canada. fire"-such as those for the itash bahram at Navsari and Udwada, plus many adaran flames (Stewart 2004: 442-45, 453, 458). As in India, many fire temples in other countries are named after donors whose funds established those religious institutions. Other fire temples were established using voluntary contributions gathered from the community by local or regional associations. The Zoroastrian community in Pakistan currently worships at two temples with adaran fires--dating to 1849 and 1869 -in Karachi, one with a dadgah in Lahore originally founded in 1893, and another with a dadgdh in Quetta dating to 1883 (Giara 2002: 179-82 with pls.). Devotees living in Sri Lanka (earlier called Ceylon) have worshipped at an endowed fire temple, with a fire that is lighted from an oil lamp, at the city of Colombo since 1927 (Figs. 15a and 15b) (see also Giara 2002: 183 with pl.). Only individuals born from Zoroastrian fathers are permitted to worship, after covering their heads, purifying their hands and faces, and retying the cord, at fire temples in Pakistan and Sri Lanka. Zoroastrians in Hong Kong have the Pherozeshaw Kawasji Pavri Memorial Prayer Hall, with its flame, on the sixth floor of a modern multipurpose steel and glass building (Giara 2002: 164 with pl.). Fig. 16b. Altar in fire precinct, Toronto, Canada. Zoroastrians in England used to attend religious ritual purposes and has replaced the West Hampstead services at a community hall in the Zoroastrian House, which was opened at West Hampstead, London, in location 1969 (Giara 2002: 185 with pl.; Avari 2005). Zoroastrians and pray at a flame which is ignited from an oil lamp or can worship at fire temples in Australia at div5 when necessary (see also Giara 2002: 184 withSydney pl.). (1994), at a prayer hall at Parsiana in Auckland, Recently, the Zartoshty Brothers Hall at Harrow, New Zealand (2005), in Canada at Toronto (1980) (Figs. 16a and 16b) and Vancouver (1986), and in the United dedicated in 2001, with a setayesh (stayishn) gah, States "precinct for praise or prayer", has become functional for ofAmerica at a suburb of New York City (founded This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms ALTARS, PRECINCTS, AND TEMPLES: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ZOROASTRIAN PRAXIS 341 Fig. 17. Altar in fire precinct, Chicago, USA. Fig. 18. Modern fire temple, Westminster Los Angeles, USA. at New Rochelle in 1977, then relocated to Suffern within ain chamber that is separated from the congregat 2001), at the suburb of Vienna in Virginia near by glass windows. During Washington D.C. (1990), at the suburb of Hinsdale near the past two centuries, when Zoroastrian Chicago (1983) (Fig. 17), at Houston (1998), atemigrated, San Jose from locales like small towns in Gujara (1992), and at the suburb of Westminster near Los Sukkur in Pakistan, Rangoon (now Yangon) in Burm Angeles (1985) (Fig. 18). Another one will (now be built in Myanmar), the island of Zanzibar (now part Tanzania) Oakville, Western Ontario, Canada. They refer to theirwhere an agiary was established by Cowa Dinshaw fire temples by the phrase dar be-mehr (or darbe in 1895, and Aden in Yemen, the ritual fires mehr) and those temples contain fires equivalent to from there were either permitted to burn out or we the dadgah transported to other fire temples usually in Ind level often lighted from oil lamps prior to communal (compare gatherings (see further Giara 2002: 161-64, 186-91 Giara 2002: 218-19). When a community with pls.). Access to fire temples in Europe Iran and or North India can no longer support a ritual fire, it too America is granted to Zoroastrians and non-Zoroastrians often transported to another temple or combined wi alike, with the fire often-but not always-burning another fire of equivalent ritual rank. This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 342 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES Many fire temples were built But medieval bypraxes, and modem individual in which the h Zoroastrian donors often surrounding the dtashgdh often a in memory of hasdeceas skylights windows (see Figs. 5b, 10-12, 17), indicate thatth relative. Those temples have pious endowments o direct bright sunlight provide finances for maintenance of is covered the by the injunction fires, buildin ( alsorely and clergy. Other temples Boyd and onKotwal 1983: 296 for charitable the plan of t contribut Wadia itash bahrdm from the laity or communal dues where windows line the exterior collected by the lo anjoman or the regional wall of panchayat the prayer hall in which (also pronoun the itashgdh-with its own windows facing punchdyat), "council". Exterior andthat hall-is located). design interior Hung on the sh an amalgamation of Iranian walls are ladles and andEuropean tongs to serve offerings architectur to the fire, plus ceremonial especially the Victorian style for swords and bull-headed temples maces to14) (Fig. sym- buil the nineteenth century bolically in India,protect the fire. Most temples have attempts atat recreat least one magus whose ancient Iranian styles echoing duties include tending Persepolis for the fire and temples b in the twentieth century in Iran performing (Figs. the rituals 4b, while wearing 9) and a mouth andnose Ind plus contemporary European and mask. Others utilise American a lay caretaker decor to tend the fire with those erected in the late wood and frankincense. twentieth and early twenty-f centuries in the United States Within fire templesof America hang portraits (Fig. 1 of the prophet Zarathushtra (Zardosht) or Canada, England and Australia (see also Boyce 1989 Zoroaster (Fig. 5b), often 10; compare Dastur and Punthakey modelled Mistree after the fourth century 2002 rock relief of Mithra at w figs. 1, 3-13, 25-26). Taq-e Bostan. Likewise, frequently seen in fire temples are modem versionsholy The mechanics of establishing of the winged fires figuregenerall from follow that of medieval Persepolis, times (as documented interpreted in by contemporary Zoroastrians as text such as the Pahlavi Revdyat representing either Accompanying Ahura Mazda, the fravashi, th Dddestdn T DjnTg 18e.1-24; "immortal soul", of and Persian each devotee, Revdy or the divinised 1.74-75; see also Boyd and concept Kotwal of khvaranah 1983: or farnah (later 295, 2 khwarrah, farr) Vitalone 2004: 425-27, "glory" 431-41). (Figs. 4b, 6, 9, 18). Images, Now, as especially in premode times, each holy fire-especially one photographs and paintings, of priests ofdeemed and laity the dt bahrdm or ctash adardn saints are also present as are those of wealthy bums rank-usually patrons o concave brazier in a metal altar or dtashdan and benefactors (Fig. 15b). Therefore, if present praxis (ifrinaganyu) on a stone platform upon aistiled floor any guide, it is necessary to be careful in not cate- gorising within apawt, "pure space", surrounded by kash ancient and medieval fire temples as bagin or or kish, temples for anthropomorphised divinities merely "separatory furrows"-as are the urwisgdh (yazishngjh) because and the barashnilmgih-inscribed on the floor of aof the presence of a variety of images and rites. fire precinct or dtashgdh, which is often modelled after the medieval chahdr tdq with four columns, windows with glass or metal bars and a domed inner ceiling IMPORTANT (Boyce RITUALS AND DEVOTIONS 1989c: 10; Choksy 2003: 27-28). A chimney or smoke Devotees hole is provided, whose flue often is set at an regard each fire as a pure symbol through angle so which that rainwater cannot drip onto the flame. The fire worship is directed toward Ahura Mazda and precinct is situated within the fire temple orother divinities of Zoroastrianism (in its absence, itashdkada, so that sunlight often penetrates only indirectly, to can worship notbe performed facing the sun, moon, stars, or compete for primacy with the fire's light and anytoother which source of light). In premodemrn times, access by individuals can be restricted to Zoroastrians protect the occasionally even referred to the itashdan as their qibla, "direction", of prayer (Rehbar-e Din-e fire's ritual purity and ensure that it is not extinguished by hostile non-Zoroastrians (Figs. 5b, 10, 12). The Jarthushti, "Guide to the Zoroastrian Religion", written byholy injunction that sunlight should not fall upon Edalji Sohrabji Dastur Meherjirana in 1869: 54). fires (Persian Revdyats 1.65, 67) has been usedBecause to suggest of holy fires' assumed purity, orthodox women that fire altars were not exposed to sunlight or utilised continue to abstain from visiting fire temples when men outdoors in ancient or medieval times (for example struating Justi and immediately after childbirth (Choksy 2002 1897: 65; Huff 2004: 609 with additional references). 113). At fire temples, laity who have purified themselves This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms ALTARS, PRECINCTS, AND TEMPLES: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ZOROASTRIAN PRAXIS 343 generally offer fragrant firewood, such as the sandalwood, evening, seven at night, and nine after midnight (Modi 1937: and incense as fuel for the holy fire (compare 220, 225-26; Boyce 1977: 75; Boyd and Kotwal Rehbar-e Din-e Jarthushti 55-56). Facing the fire while 1983: standing 304). In this connection, the niydyishn is required (Fig. 8), occasionally seated or kneeling, they duringquietly the ceremony of enthroning a holy fire (Modi 1937: 214, recite prescribed prayers such as those appropriate for 229). the Likewise, it is recited during the gjh, "watch, period, or time", of day or night, the Ahuna ordination (called ndwar by Parsis, originally referred to Vairya (Ahunawar), "As is the lord", and asthe Ashem or nazdd/nmzddi and now pronounced as n6zkid/nazdT Vohii, "Order is good". Devotees may choose to by navezuti think Irani Zoroastrians) of the priests, because they about religious issues, offer thanks to or seektend the holy boons from fires, and during the initiation (navjote, Ahura Mazda, or remember deceased relatives and sedre pushi) of all Zoroastrians (Supplementary Texts to friends (Boyd and Kotwal 1984: 293, 301-3). the Shdyest n&-Shiyest, "The Proper and The Improper", The ritual sacrificing of an animal-especially cow, a compilation containing Sasanian period materials which horse, donkey, sheep, goat or pig-and offering a were redacted during the ninth century 13.2; see also portion of its flesh or fat to holy fires was still practiced Firouzgary 2000: 9, 10). The text of that niydyishn also regularly in Iran and India during the nineteenth century forms Yasna 62, and therefore is recited during that most but had begun to encounter opposition from priests and central of Zoroastrian rituals-the Yasna. For the same laypersons (Rehbar-e Din-e Jarthushti 57). It was reasons, this niydyishn is regarded as appropriate for phased out gradually in Iran and India during the recitation by lay Zoroastrians during all five periods of the twentieth century to satisfy the mores of Muslim and day, especially on the first, third, ninth, seventeenth and Hindu majorities plus the expectations of westernising twentieth days of each month (Farziydt nama, "Book of Zoroastrians in those two countries (see further Sykes Obligatory Duties", 12, written in the late seventeenth 1902: 156; Fischer 1973: 192; Boyce 1977: 157). century in New Persian; Rehbar-e Din-e Jarthushti 10). The Atakhsh Niydyishn (Atash Niydyishn, Atesh Moreover, any Zoroastrian who inadvertently pollutes a Niydyishn) is linked ritually to the holy fires that blaze fire is supposed to recite this niydyishn as atonement within the dtashgdh inside an dtashkada as the (Boyce 1977: 95). "invocation to praise to fire" (consult Choksy and Kotwal The central ritual surrounding holy fires or Bay 2005 for full details of the Avestan and Pahlavi texts and ceremony is conducted at the beginning of each of the rituals; on the rituals see also Nirangestdn 32.9). five periods of a day. During the B5y ritual, the priest Therefore, it has to be performed by the priest who tends who is in a state of purity and is dressed in white clerical a holy fire with clean, dry, fragrant wood and incense clothes, including a mask over his nose and mouth, during the B6y, "(Offering of) Incense", ceremony enters the dtashgdh where the fire burns, places three conducted at the beginning of each of the five periods or pairs of wood pieces upon the fire in three different gihs of a day while a bell is rung to exorcize evil with directions-symbolically creating a throne for the fire- loud sound. The number of recitations of the niydyishn and sprinkles frankincense over the flame. He then and accompanying ritual offerings varies each gdh with cleanses, with water, the platform on which the fire altar the ritual grade of fire involved, as does the level of purity rests. Next, the magus circles the fire, stopping eight required of the priest. A single recitation of the niydyishn times, chanting formulaic words in Avestan. A little is appropriate for a holy fire of the dddgdh rank. Such more firewood and incense are offered, then the Atash recitation is still performed at home to the hearth fire by Niydyishn is recited while a bell is rung nine times to traditionalist behdins or lay Zoroastrians in Iran, Pakistan, exorcize evil using loud sounds (Modi 1937: 219-26; India and Sri Lanka often in conjunction with lighting a Boyd and Kotwal 304). Minor ritual actions are div3, "oil lamp", or carrying a fire in a small brazier performed during the main ones described above. As through every room of the house during the lobln or mentioned previously, the number of recitations and incense ritual to purify the rooms with smoke (see also offerings varies with the ritual grade of fire involved, as Kreyenbroek and Munshi 2001: 63, 71, 96, 215, 256). does the level of purity required of the priest. Because Three recitations of the niydyishn are necessary for a holy dddgdh flames represent hearth fires, these can be fire of the &tash adardn rank. The number of recitations tended with wood and frankincense by lay Zoroastrians. A range of other rituals-both high or inner ones and for an dtash bahram depend on the gdh of the day-- eleven during the morning, nine in the afternoon, seven in minor or outer ones-require the presence of dddgdh This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms 344 JOURNAL OF PERSIAN STUDIES fires. Piw mahal, "pure" or high Indiana University, "rites", Bloomington, inclu generously funded the Yasna where both fire-representing Ahura project in Iran, the Indian subcontinent, Maz Europe, Canada, Mithra-and water-representing and the United States of America.Ahura Mazd All photographs by Anahita-are central aspects ofJ.K. permission of Archive theChosky.most impo Zoroastrian ritual, Vidcvddd or Vendiddd "Utterance of Consecration", and Visperad, "(S for) All the Lords" (Modi 1937: 302-10, 311-29, Bibliography of Textual Sources 330-32, 333-53; Boyd and Kotwal 1983: 304-7; Kotwal and Boyd 1991: 85-129). The minor rites, Avesta (Gdthds, Yasna, Yashts, Vidjvddd, Visperad, Khwurdag which also may be conducted at home, include Abestdg, Siroza, Niydyishn). Ed. K.F. Geldner. 1982. 3 vols. Afrinagdn, "Blessings", Farokhshi, "(Veneration of) All Delhi. Souls", and Staomi or Stiim, "Praise" (Modi 1937: Farziyvt nama. Ed. and trans. J.J. Modi. 1924. Bombay. 354-84, 385-401, 402-4; Boyce 1977: 54; Boyd and Geography, by Strabo. Ed. and trans. H.L. Jones. 1983. 8 vols. Kotwal 1983: 307-8; Kotwal and Choksy 2004: 393-96 Cambridge, Massachusetts. with pls. 4.1-3). The rituals are conducted by magi, with Histories of Nishapur. Ed. R.N. Frye. 1965. Cambridge, laity usually present for the minor ones. Dadgdh flames Massachusetts. are also present at Jashan, "Thanksgiving Services", History, by Ammianus Marcellinus. Ed. and trans. J.C. Rolfe. and the six Gdhanbjr, "Communal feasts" (Boyce 1982. 3 vols. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1977: 31-51; Boyd and Kotwal 1983: 308-10, 312; Kirdir ' Inscriptions. Ed. M. Back. 1978. Leiden. Ed. and trans. Shahzadi 1994: 1-2, 5; Firouzgary 2000: 8, 11, 31-32; Ph. Gignoux. 1991. Leiden. and Mazdapour 2004: 635). All these rituals are still Kitib al-a 'ldq al-nafisa, by Ahmad b. 'Umar b. Rusta. Ed. M.J. performed in India. Most of the minor or outer ones de Goeje. 1891. Leiden. continue to be performed as needed in Sri Lanka and Kitdb al-bulddn, by Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Hamadhani b. al- Pakistan, using resident priests trained in India. In Iran Faqih. Ed. M.J. de Goeje. 1885. Leiden. and other countries, only Jashan and Gdhdnbdr are Muj'am al-bulddn, by Yaqit 'Adb Allah al-Hamawi. Ed. F. celebrated at present due to lack of magi in prerequisite Wiistenfeld. 1866-73. 6 vols. Leipzig. states of high purity. Muriij al-dhahab wa ma'ddin al-jawhar, by Abi 'l-Hasan 'All Fire is also present-sometimes as candles or as b. al-Husayn al-Mas'tidi. Ed. C.A. Barbier de Meynard and embers on a brazier rather than within an atashdan-for M. Pavet de Courteille. Rev. C. Pellat. 1965-79. 7 vols. the sedra pushun or navjote initiation into the faith, Beirut. navezut or ndwar and martab initiations into ranks of Narangestdn. Ed. P. Sanjana. 1894. Bombay. Ed. F.M. Kotwal the priesthood, and wedding ceremonies. After initiation and J.W. Boyd. 1980. Cambridge, Massachusetts. and marriage, participants are expected to visit an Pahlavi Revdyat Accompanying the Didestan Denig. Ed. B.N. dtashkada to give thanks to Ahura Mazda and to pray Dhabar. 1913. Bombay. Ed. and trans. A.V. Williams. 1990. for a successful future. Because dtash bahrdm and 2 vols. Copenhagen. Rehbar-e ddardn flames are regarded as icons set apart, these are Din-e Jarthushti, by E.S. Meherjirana. 1869. not utilised in any of the above-mentioned rituals and Bombay. Trans. F.M. Kotwal and J.W. Boyd. 1982. Chico, California. ceremonies. Finally, the Yasht honoring Anahita, Mithra, Persian Revdyats. Ed. M.R. Unvala. 1922. 2 vols. Bombay. and other divinities are chanted regularly as stipulated Trans. B.N. Dhabar. 1932. Bombay. for various rituals by votaries at fire temples (for details see Choksy and Kotwal 2005). Qessa-e Sanjan, by Bahman Kaykobad Sanjfna. Ed. and trans. A. Qadri. 1964. Hyderabad. Supplementary Texts to the Shayest nd-Shdyest, Ed. and trans. Acknowledgements F.M. Kotwal. 1969. Copenhagen. Tdrikh-e Bokhara, by Abu Bakr Mohammed b. Ja'far al- Thanks are due to the many individuals who facilitated Narshakhi. Ed. M. Razavi. 1939. Tehran. Trans. R.N. Frye. research and fieldwork, especially Firoze Kotwal and 1954. Cambridge, Massachusetts. Mehraban Firouzgary. Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis helped Tlrikh-e Kerman, by Ahmad 'All Vaziri Kermani. Ed. M. hone the article's focus, for which I am most grateful. Bastani Parizi. 1961. Tehran. This content downloaded from 130.63.63.214 on Thu, 07 Oct 2021 05:05:06 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms ALTARS, PRECINCTS, AND TEMPLES: MEDIEVAL AND MODERN ZOROASTRIAN PRAXIS 345 Tarikh-e Sistin. Ed. M.T. Bahar. 1935. Tehran. Trans. M. Gold. - 2006. "Despite Shahs and Mollas: Minority Sociopolitics in 1976. Rome. Premodem and Modem Iran", Journal ofAsian History 40, Wizidagiha i Zddspram. Ed. and trans. B.T. Anklesaria. 1949. 2: 129-84. Bombay. Ed. and trans. M.Ph. Gignoux and A. 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