Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa J OHN W. W ILSON AND R ICHARD B. P RIMACK To access digital resources including: blog posts videos online appendices and to purchase copies of this book in: hardback paperback ebook editions Go to: https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/1013 Open Book Publishers is a non-profit independent initiative. We rely on sales and donations to continue publishing high-quality academic works. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa John W. Wilson and Richard B. Primack https://www.openbookpublishers.com © 2019 John W. Wilson and Richard B. Primack This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0). This license allows you to share, copy, distribute and transmit the text; to adapt the text and to make commercial use of the text providing attribution is made to the authors (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Attribution should include the following information: John W. Wilson and Richard B. Primack, Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa . Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2019, https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0177 In order to access detailed and updated information on the license, please visit, https://doi.org/10.11647/ OBP.0177#copyright Further details about CC BY licenses are available at, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ All external links were active at the time of publication unless otherwise stated and have been archived via the Internet Archive Wayback Machine at https://archive.org/web Updated digital material and resources associated with this volume are available at https://doi.org/10.11647/ OBP.0177#resources Licencing for images obtained online, many of which underwent minor stylistic adjustments, were correct at the time of publication. Every effort has been made to identify and contact copyright holders and any omission or error will be corrected if notification is made to the publisher. The Lounsbery Foundation has generously contributed to the publication of this volume. ISBN Paperback: 978-1-78374-750-4 ISBN Hardback: 978-1-78374-751-1 ISBN Digital (PDF): 978-1-78374-752-8 ISBN Digital ebook (epub): 978-1-78374-753-5 ISBN Digital ebook (mobi): 978-1-78374-754-2 ISBN XML: 978-1-78374-755-9 DOI: 10.11647/ OBP.0177 Cover photo and design by Anna Gatti. This book is dedicated to our spouses Lesley Starke and Margaret Primack, who supported our efforts to write this book and our decision to provide it for free to students and researchers across Africa Contents List of Boxes xix Foreword xxv Preface xxvii Scope xxvii Taxonomy and the IUCN Red List categories xxviii Organisation of the book xxix Bibliography xxx Acknowledgements xxxi List of Acronyms xxxiii 1. What is Conservation Biology? 1.1. Conservation Biology is Still Evolving 3 1.2 The Role of Conservation Biologists 7 1.3 The Value of Scientific Methods 9 1.4 Environmental Ethics 12 1.4.1 Conservation biology’s ethical principles 16 1.5 Summary 18 1.6 Topics for Discussion 19 1.7 Suggested Readings 19 Bibliography 20 2. Introduction to Sub-Saharan Africa 2.1 Sub-Saharan Africa’s Natural Environment 24 2.2 History of Conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa 29 viii Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa 2.2.1 The 1800s and launching of formal conservation efforts 33 2.2.2 Conservation efforts after colonialism 36 2.3 Conservation in Sub-Saharan Africa Today 37 2.4 Ongoing Conservation Challenges 44 2.4.1 Persistent poverty 44 2.4.2 Obstructive mindsets 46 2.4.3 Weak governance/institutional structures 47 2.4.4 Skills shortages 51 2.4.5 Competing interests 52 2.5 Conclusion 53 2.6 Summary 53 2.7 Topics for Discussion 54 2.8 Suggested Readings 54 Bibliography 55 3. What is Biodiversity? 3.1 Species Diversity 62 3.1.1 What is a species? 64 3.2 Genetic Diversity 65 3.3 Ecosystem Diversity 69 3.4 Patterns of Biodiversity 71 3.4.1 Challenging species identifications 72 3.4.2 Implications of challenging species identifications 73 3.4.3 Measuring species diversity 79 3.4.4 How many species exist? 81 3.4.5 Where are most species found? 82 3.5 Summary 85 3.6 Topics for Discussion 86 3.7 Suggested Readings 86 Bibliography 87 ix Contents 4. Why Should We Protect Biodiversity? 4.1 Material Contributions 93 4.2 Regulating Services 96 4.2.1 Maintaining ecosystem stability 96 4.2.2 Maintaining ecosystem productivity 99 4.2.3 Climate regulation 99 4.2.4 Conserving soil and water quality 100 4.2.5 Pollination and seed dispersal 101 4.2.6 Hazard detection and mitigation 105 4.2.7 Pest and disease control 106 4.3 Nonmaterial Contributions 112 4.3.1 Inspiration and learning support 112 4.3.2 Supporting psychological and physical experiences 114 4.3.3 Supporting individual and group identities 116 4.4 The Long-Term View: Option Values 117 4.5 Environmental Economics 118 4.5.1 Placing a price on the natural world 119 4.5.2 Environmental economics’ biggest contributions 120 4.5.3 Environmental economics’ biggest challenges 121 Accounting for negative externalities 121 Determining ownership 122 A more inclusive approach 123 4.6 Summary 124 4.7 Topics for Discussion 124 4.8 Suggested Readings 125 Bibliography 126 5. The Scramble for Space 5.1 What is Habitat Loss? 134 5.1.1 What is habitat fragmentation? 138 5.1.2 What are edge effects? 140 5.2 Drivers of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation 142 x Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa 5.3 Habitat Loss’ Impact on Africa’s Ecosystems 145 5.3.1 Tropical forests 145 5.3.2 Rivers and deltas 148 5.3.3 Wetlands 149 5.3.4 Seasonal drylands 153 5.4 Population Growth and Consumption? 156 5.5 Concluding Remarks 159 5.6 Summary 160 5.7 Topics for Discussion 160 5.8 Suggested Readings 161 Bibliography 161 6. Our Warming World 6.1 Drivers of Climate Change 168 6.2 Predicting Earth’s Future Climate 173 6.3 The Impact of Climate Change 175 6.3.1 Climate change’s impact on people 176 6.3.2 Climate change’s impact on terrestrial ecosystems 178 Climate change on mountains 178 Climate change in the lowlands 178 Climate change and dispersal limitations 182 Climate change and biological interactions 182 Climate change and reptiles 184 6.3.3 Climate change’s impact on freshwater ecosystems 184 Warmer rivers and streams 184 Changing flow regimes 185 6.3.4 Climate change’s impact on marine ecosystems 185 Ocean acidification 186 Sea level rise 187 Coral bleaching 187 Ocean deoxygenation 188 6.3.5 Climate change interacts with habitat loss 188 6.4 Beneficiaries of Climate Change 189 xi Contents 6.5 The Overall Impact of Climate Change 192 6.6 Summary 193 6.7 Topics for Discussion 194 6.8 Suggested Readings 194 Bibliography 195 7. Pollution, Overharvesting, Invasive Species, and Disease 7.1 Pollution in Its Many Forms 204 7.1.1 Water pollution 207 7.1.2 Air pollution 212 7.1.3 Soil pollution 213 7.1.4 Light pollution 214 7.1.5 Noise pollution 216 7.1.6 Thermal pollution 216 7.2 Overharvesting 218 7.2.1 The Bushmeat Crisis 218 7.2.2 Overfishing 220 7.2.3 The impact of traditional medicine 223 7.2.4 The impact of live animal trade 224 7.2.5 Overharvesting of plant products 226 7.2.6 Challenges in managing overharvesting 226 7.3 Persecution 230 7.4 Invasive Species 231 7.4.1 Spread of invasive species 231 7.4.2 Impact of invasive species 235 7.4.3 Genetically modified organisms 237 7.6 Parasites and Diseases 238 7.7 Summary 242 7.8 Topics for Discussion 243 7.9 Suggested Readings 244 Bibliography 244 xii Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa 8. Extinction Is Forever 8.1 What is Extinction? 259 8.2 Rates of Extinction 259 8.3 When is a Species Extinct? 260 8.4 History of Extinctions in Sub-Saharan Africa 263 8.5 Which Species are at Risk of Extinction? 271 8.5.1 Course-filter assessments 274 8.6 Characteristics of Threatened Species 274 8.7 Problems of Small Populations 277 8.7.1 Loss of genetic diversity 277 Genetic drift 277 Inbreeding depression 278 Outbreeding depression 280 Population bottlenecks 281 8.7.2 Demographic stochasticity 281 8.7.3 Environmental stochasticity and catastrophes 282 8.7.4 The extinction vortex 284 8.7.5 Is there any hope for small populations? 285 8.8 Is De-extinction a Solution? 285 8.9 Summary 289 8.10 Topics for Discussion 289 8.11 Suggested Readings 290 Bibliography 291 9. Applied Population Biology 9.1 Monitoring Population Size 299 9.1.1 Biodiversity inventories 299 9.1.2 Population censuses 302 9.1.3 Demographic studies 306 9.1.4 Recent progress in collecting survey data 308 9.2 Estimating Extinction Risk 309 9.2.1 A word of warning 310 9.2.2 Probability of extinction 310 xiii Contents 9.2.3 Minimum viable population 311 9.2.4 Effective population size 313 9.2.5 Maximum sustainable yield 314 9.2.6 Sensitivity analysis 317 9.3 Challenges to PVA Implementation 318 9.3.1 Lack of adequate data 318 9.3.2 Data reliability 319 9.3.3 Model reliability 319 9.4 Summary 320 9.5 Topics for Discussion 320 9.6 Suggested Readings 321 Bibliography 322 10. Conserving Ecosystems 10.1 Ecosystem Monitoring 328 10.1.1 Monitoring ecosystems with geospatial analysis 332 10.2 Maintaining Complex and Adaptive Ecosystems 337 10.2.1 Maintaining critical ecosystem processes 338 The water cycle 338 The nutrient cycle 339 The energy cycle 340 Community dynamics 341 Fire Dynamics 341 10.2.2 Minimising external threats 343 Controlling invasive species 344 10.2.3 Adaptive management 349 10.2.4 Being minimally intrusive 353 10.3 Restoring Damaged Ecosystems 354 10.3.1 Ecological restoration approaches 355 10.3.2 Major restoration targets 357 10.3.3 The future of ecological restoration 362 10.4 Combatting Climate Change Through Ecosystem Conservation 363 10.5 Summary 364 xiv Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa 10.6 Topics for Discussion 365 10.7 Suggested Readings 366 Bibliography 366 11. Preventing Extinctions 11.1 Studying Species and Populations 376 11.1.1 Obtaining natural history data 380 11.2 Saving Species Through Translocations 384 11.2.1 Important considerations for translocations 384 Determining need and feasibility 385 Support from local stakeholders 385 Identifying suitable habitat 386 Considering genetics and behaviour 388 How many individuals to release 388 Preparing individuals for release 391 Post-release monitoring 394 Helping other translocation projects 394 11.3 Managing and Facilitating Movement Dynamics 395 11.3.1 Connectivity in terrestrial ecosystems 396 11.3.2 Connectivity in freshwater ecosystems 402 11.3.3 Connectivity in marine ecosystems 402 11.3.4 Mimicking connectivity 403 11.3.5 Management considerations in connectivity conservation 403 11.4 Managing Species Sensitive to Climate Change 404 11.5 Ex Situ Conservation Strategies 406 11.5.1 Types of ex situ facilities 409 11.5.2 Challenges facing ex situ facilities 411 11.6 Thoughts on Neglected Taxa 413 11.7 Summary 417 11.8 Topics for Discussion 418 11.9 Suggested Readings 418 Bibliography 419 xv Contents 12. Biodiversity and the Law 12.1 Identifying Legislative Priorities 428 12.2 Environmental Laws and Policies 430 12.2.1 International agreements 430 12.2.2 National and local laws 435 12.3 Environmental Law Enforcement 439 12.3.1 New technologies in environmental law enforcement 440 12.4 The Limits of Environmental Laws and Regulations 448 12.4.1 Lack of capacity 449 12.4.2 Conflicting government priorities 449 12.4.3 Informal economies, traditional activities, and the law 450 12.4.4 Trade embargoes and sanctions 451 12.5 Conclusion 452 12.6 Summary 455 12.7 Topics for Discussion 455 12.8 Suggested Readings 456 Bibliography 457 13. The Importance of Protected Areas 13.1 Establishing Protected Areas 462 13.1.1 Government protected areas 463 13.1.2 Community conserved areas 464 13.1.3 Privately protected areas 464 13.1.4 Co-managed protected areas 465 13.1.5 Field stations and marine laboratories 466 13.2 Classification of Protected Areas 466 13.3 Prioritisation: What Should be Protected? 469 13.3.1 Species approach 471 13.3.2 Ecosystem approach 471 13.3.3 Wilderness approach 472 13.3.4 Hotspot approach 472 13.3.5 Gap analysis approach 474 xvi Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa 13.3.6 Optimisation approach 478 13.4 How Much Land Should We Protect? 478 13.4.1 A neglected system: marine protected areas 480 13.5 Designing Protected Areas 480 13.5.1 What size should a protected area be? 483 13.5.2 Zoning as a solution to conflicting demands 486 13.5.3 Connectivity among protected areas 492 13.5.4 What about small isolated reserves? 493 13.6 Managing Protected Areas 494 13.6.1 The importance of monitoring 495 13.6.2 The importance of working with local people 496 13.6.3 The importance of accommodating visitors 498 13.6.4 The IUCN Green List of Protected Areas 499 13.7 Challenges for Protected Areas 500 13.7.1 Funding limitations 501 13.7.2 Planning for climate change 502 13.7.3 Facing degazettement 502 13.8 Summary 503 13.9 Topics for Discussion 504 13.10 Suggested Readings 504 Bibliography 505 14. Conservation on Unprotected Lands 14.1 Human-Dominated Landscapes 516 14.1.1 The impact of agriculture 525 14.1.2 The impact of logging, mining, and other extractive industries 530 14.2 Smart Development Outside Conservation Areas 532 14.3 Linking Conservation to Socio-Economic Development 534 14.4 Confronting Human-Wildlife Conflict 539 14.4.1 Dealing with predators 540 14.4.2 Dealing with crop raiders 541 14.4.3 Concluding thoughts on human-wildlife conflict 542 14.5 Summary 542 xvii Contents 14.6 Topics for Discussion 543 14.7 Suggested Readings 544 Bibliography 545 15. An Agenda for the Future 15.1 Achieving Sustainable Development 556 15.2 Dealing with Technological Advances 558 15.3 Funding Conservation Activities 562 15.3.1 How effective is conservation funding? 564 15.4 Building Lasting Partnerships 568 15.4.1 Partnerships with local people 569 15.4.2 Partnerships among conservation professionals 573 15.5 Environmental Education and Leadership 574 15.6 Summary 579 15.7 Topics for Discussion 580 15.8 Suggested Readings 580 Bibliography 581 Appendix A 589 Selected Sources of Information Appendix B 593 Selected Environmental Organisations Appendix C 607 Obtaining Conservation Funding Appendix D 613 Environmental Calendar Glossary 615 Index 645