Treacherous auxiliaries -

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Karwansaray BV Treacherous auxiliaries Author(s): Filippo Donvito Source: Medieval Warfare , 2015, Vol. 5, No. 1, Theme - Traitors in the Middle Ages (2015), pp. 22-27 Published by: Karwansaray BV Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/48578413 JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at https://about.jstor.org/terms Karwansaray BV is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Medieval Warfare This content downloaded from 130.63.180.147 on Thu, 10 Dec 2020 01:22:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms Traitors in the Middle Ages The Battle of the River Talas Treacherous auxiliaries at the beginning of the seventh century, the three empires of Byz- antium, persia and china were the most powerful and advanced states of eurasia. less than a century later, the striking conquests of the arabs had overrun sassanid persia and forced the Byz- antine empire to fight for its very survival. china, ruled by the mighty Tang dynasty, seemed safe for the time being, but even they would get a taste of what the arabs were capable of. By filippo donvito added Transoxiana to their western marches. However, within a year, the great empire was D divided into a Western (centred in the Altai) uring Late Antiquity, Sogdiana, and Eastern Khaganate (based in Mongolia). also called Transoxiana (‘the Land Throughout the next century, the Eastern Turks beyond the [river] Oxus’), was a waged many successful wars against the north- wealthy region. The local princes, ern Chinese dynasties. But then, in 624, they some of whom bore the title of Ikhshidh (or were utterly defeated by a Chinese prince. The ‘king’), enriched themselves through the silk- latter would later assume the imperial title un- trade with China and by trading furs from der the name of T’ai-tsung (a.k.a. Taizong; r. Siberia. The region’s strategic location at the 627-649), starting a new dynasty: the Tang. crossroads of China, India and Persia, con- trolling the main routes of the Silk Road, had This small statuette displayed at chinese expansionism westward made the Sogdian merchants the most influ- In a deliberate effort to emulate the great central the Cernuschi Museum of Paris ential tradesmen of inner Asia. Transoxiana Asian conquests of the ancient Han dynasty, T’ai- depicts a Chinese officer of the was also an advanced agricultural area at the tsung committed himself to the submission of the Middle Tang Era (eight century). time. Thanks to a whole network of irrigation two Turkic Khaganates. While the Eastern Turks His elaborate armour shows canals, which directed the waters of great were crushed within three years, the Emperor some distinctive Turkic influ- rivers and mountain streams, an otherwise spent the remaining twenty years of his eventful ences, especially the dragon’s steppe-like environment had become a fertile reign taming their western cousins, who were heads decorating the warrior’s plain dotted with farms and vineyards. much more powerful and unified. Their defeat espaliers (armour covering the The Sogdians were originally an Iranian was achieved by slowly conquering the rich Indo- shoulder), knees and belt. Note people, but from the sixth century onwards, European oasis cities of the Tarim basin (modern the armour reinforcement at chest height, and the strange groups of nomadic Turkic speakers had begun Xinjiang), the wealthiest allies and main com- headgear, possibly a helmet in to settle among them. In AD 552, the first pre- mercial partners of the Western Turks. Splendid the form of an animal’s head. dominantly Turkic Khaganate recorded in his- city-states like Turfan, Kucha and Khotan fell after © User ‘Guillaume Jacquet’, via Wiki- tory was established. Conquering lands from years of epic battles and rebellions, finally allow- media Commons (CC-by-SA) central Asia to eastern Mongolia, the Turks soon ing the Chinese to bring their Empire’s border to 22 Medieval Warfare V-1 This content downloaded from 130.63.180.147 on Thu, 10 Dec 2020 01:22:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms mw_5-1.indd 22 20/01/15 16:09 Traitors in the Middle Ages the Pamir Mountains, the eastern border of Transoxiana. Kao- tsung (650-683), T’ai- tsung’s son and suc- cessor, continued his father’s work, defeat- ing the last Western Turkic chief opposed to China in 657. However, from 665 onwards, the Western Turkic tribes started a se- ries of revolts. Around the same time, the Tarim basin was overrun by the Tibet- ans. Even worse, in 682 the Eastern Turkic Khaganate was revived by a descend- ant of the old Turkic royal clan, who immediately reopened hostilities against the Chinese. The follow- ing decades, the Chinese were forced to stay on the defensive, suffering many humiliating defeats. The Chinese had received a beating, but around the middle of Em- peror Hsüan-tsung’s reign (713-755), they slowly began to recover their for- mer position. Around 734, the Turkic tribes, deprived of a strong leader, started quarrelling among This persuaded even the prince of Tokharistan © Julia Lillo themselves, thus making them easy prey for (present-day northern Afghanistan) to declare a revived Chinese power. The Tibetans were himself a faithful ally of the Chinese Emperor. expelled from the Tarim region in the 30s and The campaigns between northern Afghani- 40s. After the original borders of the empire stan and the upper Indus valley symbolize the forged by his ancestor T’ai-tsung had been apex of Tang expansionism. The incredible pro- restored, Hsüan-tsung turned his mind to gresses through such a huge territory must have other and ‘more glorious’ conquests. The Tang made the Chinese seem almost unstoppable. court’s eyes focused on the Pamirs, whereby But by crossing the Pamirs, they had now en- passed the routes followed by Buddhist pil- tered the eastern border of Transoxiana, a land grims heading for the Indian sanctuaries. Petty that, during the preceding fifty years, had gradu- mountain chiefs had managed to seize the ally come under the control of another dynamic fortress of Gilgit, threatening the trade route and expansionistic power: the Umayyad Arab for the small kingdom of Kashmir, an ally of Caliphate. This made a struggle for supremacy the Chinese. Hsüan-tsung did not miss this over the area only a matter of time. Both sides great opportunity to expand his influence up must have been equally determined not to to the gates of India, and duly sent one of his give ground, seeing that any sign of weakness best generals, the Korean Kao Sien-chih, to would likely have sparked the seeds of rebellion defeat the last Tibetan partisans in AD 750. among the recently conquered peoples. Medieval Warfare V-1 23 This content downloaded from 130.63.180.147 on Thu, 10 Dec 2020 01:22:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms mw_5-1.indd 23 20/01/15 16:10 Traitors in the Middle Ages (Opposite page) The final phase The arabs in central asia West was ever more likely, and Chinese support of the Battle of the River Talas. Arab raids beyond the Oxus started after the surely hastened the course of events. With the Abbasid vanguard at middle of the seventh century, but a serious ef- In 747, Umayyad rule over Khorasan was their heels, the survivors of the fort to conquer Transoxiania was never under- shaken by the outbreak of the Abbasid Revo- Chinese army retreated from the taken before the start of the next century. This lution. Headed by the legendary Abu Muslim, battlefield towards the otherwise was substantially the work of a single resolute the revolutionaries captured the great provin- unknown White Stone Mountains man: Qutayba ibn Muslim. cial capital of Merv (Marv) in December 747 pass. However, their former Fer- or January 748. Having secured control over Qutayba held the province of Khorasan ghanese (Sogdian) allies had got- the east, the Abbasid insurrectionary army (north-eastern Persia) in the name of the Umayy- ten there first, blocking the pass moved westward to challenge the Umayyads ad caliph from 705 to 715. Immediately before with their soldiers and beasts of on the battlefield. The final encounter was leaving for the conquest of Transoxiana, he was burden. This might have been fought some three years later in Mesopota- wise enough to develop friendly relations with another deliberate act of trea- mia, at the confluence of the Zab and Tigris the Persian population of his province, a choice son – possibly instigated by the probably dictated by the need to protect his sup- rivers. The army of the Umayyad Caliph was Muslims in return for some re- ply lines and increase his sources of manpower. utterly defeated, and the Abbasids lay the ward – but it could also simply He subsequently spent the whole length of his foundations of their new dynasty. be the result of the confusion and governorship waging war in Khwarazm and in Those final months of 750, when the new the overcrowding of retreating Sogdiana up to the Ferghana valley. After the first Abbasid Caliphate managed to successfully de- troops. Either way, the Chinese Arab victories, the Sogdian princes recognized feat the Umayyads, provided the Chinese with commanders immediately real- the danger and tried to counter the new threat an ideal opportunity to launch an attack against ized they were walking into a by summoning the Western Turks to their aid. Transoxiana. Arab presence in the area probably death trap. Li Su-yeh, command- Against all odds, Qutayba was able to beat the greatly decreased during the revolution, and it er of the Tang cavalry, took the in- Turko-Iranian coalition on several occasions. So would have been likely that the newly instated itiative and charged the Sogdians, resourceful and determined was this Arab gen- Abbasids were still occupied with conquering slaughtering them without mercy eral, that when he eventually fell out of favour the last Umayyad strongholds and securing their until he was able to open an es- and was murdered by his soldiers, all the major recent gains. Emboldened by recent events, gen- cape route for his companions. This artwork shows the moment principalities of Transoxiana as far north as Tash- eral Kao Sien-chih (either on his own initiative or when the Tang armoured cavalry kent had declared themselves as his vassals. by order of the Emperor) felt confident enough crashes into the Sogdian horse- The Sogdian rulers were perfectly aware to assist the King of Ferghana against his rival the men blockading the pass. that the Arabs were there to stay. If they want- King of Shash (Tashkent). The latter was brutally © Fabrice Weiss ed to win back their freedom and wealth, beheaded by the Chinese general, but his son then they had to act quickly, before another fled to Samarkand, where he sent a request for Umayyad governor could consolidate Qutay- help to Abu Muslim. This would turn out to be ba’s successes. Thus, while continuing to seek the pretext for an outbreak of hostilities between help from the Turkic tribes, they also looked Tang China and the Abbasid Caliphate. for a more powerful patron. Already in 712, the king of Ferghana had fled to the Chinese The opposing armies governor of the ‘Four Garrisons’, in the Tarim The mainstay of the early Abbasid military Basin. His example was soon followed by oth- was the Ahl Khurasan, the ‘Army of Khorasan’. ers, including the kings of Bukhara and Samar- Its foundation can be traced back to the year kand and the prince of Tokharistan. 671, when fifty thousand Arab families from Emperor Hsüan-tsung, though usually Basra and Kufa were sent to colonize and gar- eager for new conquests, was still uncertain rison this newly conquered province. Over whether to enter into open conflict with the time, the Arab military settlers began to mix Umayyads. For the moment, he was content to with the local Persian population, developing bestow patents of nobility on the Sogdian princ- some distinct Iranian military traditions – in es and stirring up rebellions. In the 660s the particular, the emphasis on cavalry warfare. Chinese had already welcomed the sons and The elite corps of the Army of Khorasan was nephews of the last Sassanid king at their court, indeed the heavy cavalry of the Khurasaniyya, and provided them with financial and military principally modelled after the late Sassanid sa- aid in order to rouse a great Persian insurgency varan knights. These horsemen are described against Arab rule. Now that the neighbouring as wearing metal armour – most likely a coat of Sogdians were in a similar predicament, a fi- mail, like the Sassanids – and carrying lances, nal showdown between Chinese East and Arab swords, axes and maces. Even their warhorses 24 Medieval Warfare V-1 This content downloaded from 130.63.180.147 on Thu, 10 Dec 2020 01:22:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms mw_5-1.indd 24 20/01/15 16:10 This content downloaded from 130.63.180.147 on Thu, 10 Dec 2020 01:22:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms mw_5-1.indd 25 20/01/15 16:10 Traitors in the Middle Ages were armoured, though mostly with bards of of the capable Ziyad ibn Salih. Kao Sien- felt, since lamellar armour was very expensive chih, the Tang general, had already begun the and probably limited to wealthy officials and crossing of the Pamirs, back to China. How- the most experienced champions. The use of ever, when news of the advancing Arab army stirrups was already quite common, as they reached him, he turned back in order to face had began to spread among Muslim horsemen this opponent, confident he would impress his from the 680s onwards. Some very distinctive emperor with yet another victory. features of the khurasaniyya were its fearful The Chinese would finally catch up with war drums and the huge flags, mounted on the Arabs at the southern bank of the river Ta- poles of up to 6 or 7 meters long. Beside the las, near the city of Taraz, presently located at This bas-relief comes from the heavy cavalry, the Army of Khorasan fielded the Kazakhstan border with Kyrgyzstan. The tomb of Emperor T’ai-tsung at regular Arab infantrymen in great numbers. Chinese army comprised around 10,000 Chi- Xi’an, in the modern Chinese Their standard equipment included an egg- nese soldiers, plus 20,000 allied Karluk Turks province of Shanxi, dated around shaped helmet, a round or oval shield of me- and a minority of Ferghanese Sogdians. A com- AD 650. It shows T’ai-tsung, dium size, a 3m-long thrusting spear and a paratively objective estimation of the Abbasid the founder of the Tang dynas- short sword or dagger. The Arab infantry was forces is quite difficult, since the sources pro- ty, pulling an arrow out of the also often mounted on horses or camels, so as vide us with insufficient evidence. Nonethe- chest of one of his six favourite to move faster across the deserts and the wide less, it is estimated that no more than 30,000 horses, ‘Autumn Dew’, who was plains of eastern Iran. Once battle was forth- men would meet the Chinese in battle. An ad- wounded during a battle outside coming, these soldiers dismounted and ar- ditional c. 20,000 Khorasanian troops were a besieged city. Armoured horse- ranged themselves in combat formation. The probably left behind to garrison the many cit- archers, also equipped with use of defensive armour was originally limited ies of northeastern Iran and Transoxiana. lances and swords, formed the to the men of the first ranks, but following a The first clash occurred in the last week bulk of the Tang cavalry, flanked great victory, many generals allowed their of July 751, when the Abbasid advance guard by an elite of cataphracts riding warriors to equip themselves with the armour spotted the Tang army on open ground. The armoured horses and swarms of stripped from the enemy corpses. The Army numerically inferior Arabs opted to stay on auxiliary Turkic horse-archers. of Khorasan was backed also by the mawali, the defensive, digging a Khandaq (‘trench’), It is interesting to note the use non-Arab Muslims. Mostly Persians and Sog- and forming a phalanx with the spear-and- of stirrups, at a time when they dians, these warriors were much appreciated shield armed infantrymen closely packed were still largely unknown in Eu- for their archery skills. together. In this way, they managed to hold rope and the Near East. The Chi- The Tang imperial army was composed out until the arrival of the main army under nese seem to have adopted them of provincial conscripts and professional the command of Ziyad, which forced Kao to during the course of the fourth soldiers stationed on the border garrisons. It suspend the attack and fall back on Taraz. century AD, but they began to was divided between three tactical units: ar- There, he deployed his army for a pitched spread among Muslim cavalry- moured cavalry, foot-archers and spearmen battle. For the next five days Arabs and Chi- men only in the last decades of equipped with tall rectangular shields. The nese would engage each other in continuous the seventh century. Now in the most common body protection, both for men fighting, hoping to wear out their opponent Penn Museum, Philadelphia. and horses, was lamellar armour. Sometimes and take advantage of a first breach along © Public domain the scales were coloured in red or gold and the enemy line. This stalemate was caused by sent in horizontal lines. Helmets and horse the similarity of tactics employed: both ar- headboards of the senior units were also mies formed a shield-wall with their infantry, adorned with peacock feathers. As the Tang behind which the archers unleashed volleys defeated and subjugated the nomad Turkic of arrows, while the cavalry made occasional tribes one at a time, an increasing number of sorties in an attempt to force a breakthrough. auxiliary horse-archers was incorporated into During the fifth day of fighting, when the imperial army. As a consequence, some fatigue was beginning to take its toll, an un- Turkic warrior customs began to influence expected event interrupted this carousel. The the equipment of the Tang soldiers, including Chinese army’s main auxiliaries, the Karluk the adoption of dragon-head-shaped espaliers Turks, deserted en masse to the Arabs and and helmets by Chinese officers. attacked their former allies in the rear. In an impressive feat of arms, Kao’s troops held on The Battle of Talas until nightfall, when they managed to ex- To repel the Chinese from Transoxiana, Abu tricate themselves from the death trap and Muslim dispatched an army at the command reach the relative safety of their camp. There, 26 Medieval Warfare V-1 This content downloaded from 130.63.180.147 on Thu, 10 Dec 2020 01:22:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms mw_5-1.indd 26 20/01/15 16:10 Traitors in the Middle Ages Kao called for a war council with his senior ic Turkic tribes who were forced to recognize officials. Despite their extremely dangerous Tang supremacy and furnish military support. situation, the general was determined to re- On the other hand, this doesn’t imply sume the fight on the next day. However, his that all those Turkic tribes were actually will- lieutenant, Li Su-yeh, managed to persuade ing to serve the Chinese. On the contrary, we him that such a decision would inevitably should rightfully expect a certain amount of lead to the total destruction of their expedi- discontent and thirst for revenge from the no- tionary force. Consequently, the only way to mads. Under these circumstances, it seems save their soldiers was to withdraw before it quite understandable that the Karluks, while was too late. Thus, the next morning, the Chi- still under Tang suzerainty, looked to the nese began the retreat eastward, along the Arabs as a means to rid themselves of the narrow paths of what they called the ‘White Chinese joke. After all, by the eighth century, A splendid fresco from the Sog- Stone Mountains’ (the Kyrgyz-Alatau range, the Chinese already had a long tradition of dian city of Penjikent (modern an offshoot of the Tian-Shan mountains). conquests in central Asia, while the Arabs Tajikistan), often interpreted as However, the surprises were not yet over. were newcomers in the game for supremacy portraying the deeds of Rostam, When the Tang troops were still busy crossing over Transoxiana. It seems likely, then, that a popular hero from an Iranian the mountains, they were suddenly attacked by Ziyad ibn Salih had some sort of agreement epic. The cavalryman is depicted their Ferghanese allies. Li Su-yeh, having taken with the Turks, whether secret or not. It is in the traditional costume of the command of what remained of the armoured highly probable that the Turks just tested the Sogdian nobility, and his lack of cavalry, led a final and desperate charge against ground, playing for time in order to catch the armour probably suggests that his former allies, cutting them to pieces and right moment to regain independence. this was a hunting scene. The finally opening a gap for his fellow soldiers. The disastrous defeat at the Battle of Ta- quivers, with two unstrung com- Thanks to this daring action, Kao Sien-chih and las, principally due to the betrayal of the Tur- posite bows and a set of arrows, many of his officers escaped, but the majority kic and Sogdian auxiliaries, marked the end are clearly visible suspended at of Chinese infantry was taken captive. of Chinese expansionism toward central Asia both sides of his hips. Sogdian al- Now, the account just given matches with once and for all. Furthermore, in 755, the lied troops were often welcomed the ‘official’ Tang account of the battle. The Tang Empire was shaken by the outbreak of to join Arab armies. In fact, some- thirteenth-century Syrian historian al-Dhahabi, another massive rebellion and began its slow times they were even entrusted however, presents a rather different version but steady decline. As a result, central Asia to protect generals. Their archery of events. According to his sources, the Kar- became one of the most important provinces skills were highly regarded. This luk Turks did not desert the Tang. Instead, they of the Abbasid Caliphate, never risking an- fresco dates to the seventh cen- were simply putting into play a plan agreed other serious external threat before the Mon- tury, now in the Museum of the upon before the two armies met. In this ver- gol invasion in the thirteenth century. MW Hermitage, St. Petersburg. sion, they were entering the fight on the side © Public domain Filippo Donvito is a regular contributor to Me- of the Arab general Ziyad ibn Salih from the dieval Warfare magazine. start. Indeed, Muslim historiography has al- ways stressed that the triumph at Talas was the consequence of the alliance with the Turks; further reading certainly not a victory stolen from the Chinese through a shameful act of treachery. • H. A. R. Gibb, The Arab Conquests in Central Asia. London 1923. Of course, even today many Chinese his- torians continue to believe that the Turks be- • R. N. Frye, The Heritage of Central trayed their oaths to the Tang generals. The fact Asia. From the Antiquity to the Turk- that the Turks’ behaviour shocked the Tang, ish Expansion. Princeton 1996. and was interpreted as treacherous, leads us • R. Grousset, The Empire of the to think that at least some sort of military co- Steppes, a History of Central Asia. operation existed between the two parties. The London 1970. Karluks were a relatively small coalition of Tur- kic nomads who were subjugated by the Tang • H. Kennedy, The Armies of the in the 730s. Furthermore, we have seen how Caliphs: Military and Society in the many such Turkic tribes were bound by the vic- Early Islamic State. London 2001. tors to provide contingents of auxiliary cavalry. • C. Peers, Battles of Ancient China. All these things considered, it seems rather like- Barnsley 2013. ly that the Karluks were amongst those Nomad- Medieval Warfare V-1 27 This content downloaded from 130.63.180.147 on Thu, 10 Dec 2020 01:22:29 UTC All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms mw_5-1.indd 27 20/01/15 16:10