Employee Selection and Testing Predicting Performance Using References and Letters of Recommendation Reference Check The process of verifying the accuracy of information provided by a job applicant. Reference An oral or written opinion about an applicant's work habits, abilities, character, and potential for success. Letter of Recommendation A written statement expressing an opinion about an applicant's qualifications and previous performance. Résumé Fraud Providing false or misleading information about education, experience, or qualifications on a résumé. Negligent Hiring Hiring an employee without conducting proper background checks, which may make the employer legally responsible for later misconduct. Leniency The tendency for references or recommendation letters to describe applicants too positively. Knowledge of the Applicant The degree to which the person providing the reference truly knows and has observed the applicant. Reliability The consistency or agreement between different people providing references for the same applicant. Extraneous Factors Factors such as writing style, length, or format that influence recommendation letters more than their actual content. Predicting Performance Using Applicant Training and Education Using an applicant's educational background and training to estimate future job performance. Predicting Performance Using Applicant Knowledge Job Knowledge Test A test that measures an applicant's understanding of job - related information and skills. Predicting Performance Using Applicant Ability Ability Test A test that measures a person's capacity to learn or perform work - related skills. Cognitive Ability Mental abilities such as reasoning, comprehension, memory, and problem - solving. Perceptual Ability The ability to accurately see, hear, and interpret sensory information. Psychomotor Ability The coordination of mental processes with physical movements like dexterity and reaction time. Physical Ability Test A test that measures physical strength, endurance, speed, and stamina required for certain jobs. Job Relevance The extent to which a physical ability test measures abilities actually required for the job. Appropriate Passing Scores The minimum performance level applicants must achieve to pass a physical ability test. Timing of Administration The decision of when physical ability testing should be conducted during the hiring process. Predicting Performance Using Applicant Personality, Interest, and Character Personality Inventories Tests designed to measure an applicant's personality traits. Tests of Normal Personality Tests that measure everyday personality characteristics of psychologically healthy individuals. Tests of Psychopathology Tests used to identify serious emotional or psychological disorders. Interest Inventories Tests that identify an applicant's vocational interests and preferred occupations. Integrity Test A test that estimates the likelihood that an applicant will behave honestly and ethically. Predicting Performance Using Applicant Skill Work Samples Selection tests in which applicants perform actual job tasks. Assessment Centers A selection process using multiple exercises and assessors to evaluate applicants. In - Basket Technique A simulation where applicants prioritize and respond to work - related documents and problems. Simulations Exercises that imitate real job situations so applicants can demonstrate their skills. Leaderless Group Discussions Group activities where applicants solve problems without an assigned leader. Structured Interviews Interviews in which every applicant answers the same predetermined questions. Personality and Ability Tests Tests used to measure applicants' personality traits and mental abilities. Business Games Simulated business activities used to evaluate decision - making and leadership skills. Predicting Performance Using Applicant Experience Experience Ratings of Application/Résumé Information Evaluating an applicant's work history based on information provided in the application or résumé. Biodata Information about an applicant's life, education, work, military, and personal experiences used to predict job performance. Reference Checks Contacting previous employers or references to verify an applicant's background. Interviews A selection method in which employers ask applicants questions to assess their qualifications and suitability. Predicting Performance Limitations Due to Medical and Psychological Problems Drug Testing Testing applicants for illegal drug use before employment. Psychological Exams Assessments used to determine an applicant's mental and emotional fitness, especially for public safety jobs. Medical Exams Physical examinations used to determine whether applicants can safely perform job duties. Evaluating Employee Performance Determine the Reason for Evaluating Employee Performance The first step of performance appraisal that identifies why employee performance is being evaluated. Performance Appraisal Review A meeting where a supervisor discusses an employee's appraisal results and future improvements. Peter Principle The idea that employees are promoted until they reach a position where they are no longer competent. Identify Environmental and Cultural Limitations Recognizing workplace and cultural factors that may affect employee performance or appraisal. 360 - Degree Feedback A performance evaluation system that collects feedback from supervisors, peers, subordinates, customers, and the employee. Select the Best Appraisal Method Choosing the most appropriate method for evaluating employee performance. Criteria Standards used to measure employee performance. Forced Distribution Method A rating method that places employees into predetermined performance categories. Ob ser vable Measurements Quantity of Work Measures how much work an employee completes. Quality of Work Measures the accuracy and excellence of an employee's work. Attendance Measures an employee's absenteeism, punctuality, and presence at work. Safety Measures an employee's compliance with workplace safety rules and prevention of accidents. Train Raters Preparing supervisors to evaluate employee performance fairly and consistently. Frame of Reference Training A training method that teaches raters how to apply performance standards accurately and consistently. Observe and Document Performance The process of recording employee behaviors and job performance over time. Critical Incidents A performance appraisal method where supervisors record important positive and negative employee behaviors. Evaluate Performance Assessing employee performance based on documented evidence and appraisal standards. Distribution Errors Errors that occur when raters incorrectly distribute performance ratings. Leniency Error Giving employees ratings that are consistently higher than deserved. Central Tendency Error Rating most employees as average regardless of their actual performance. Strictness Error Giving employees ratings that are consistently lower than deserved. Proximity Error Allowing ratings on nearby performance dimensions to influence each other. Halo Error Allowing one positive characteristic to influence ratings on unrelated performance areas. Contrast Error Comparing employees with one another instead of using established performance standards. Communicate Appraisal Results to Employees Prior to the Interview Preparing the schedule, materials, and discussion points before the appraisal meeting. During the Interview Explaining appraisal results, discussing expectations, and encouraging employee participation. Employee Termination Terminate Employees Ending an employee's employment for legal or organizational reasons. Probationary Period A trial period during which an employee's performance is evaluated before permanent employment. Layoff (Reduction in Force) Termination of employment due to organizational or financial reasons rather than employee performance. Monitor the Legality and Fairness of the Appraisal System Ensuring that the appraisal process follows legal standards and treats employees fairly. Sandwich Feedback A feedback technique that begins with praise, gives constructive criticism, and ends with positive encouragement. Motivation The force that energizes, directs, and sustains a person's behavior toward achieving goals. Self - Esteem A person's sense of self - worth that influences confidence and work motivation. Intrinsic Motivation Tendency The natural desire to perform work because it is enjoyable or personally satisfying. Need for Achievement The desire to accomplish difficult goals and perform tasks successfully. Theories of Motivation Need Theories Theories stating that people are motivated by the desire to satisfy their needs. Behavior Theories Theories explaining motivation through rewards, punishments, and reinforcement. Job Design Theories Theories proposing that the design of a job influences employee motivation. Cognitive Theories Theories emphasizing that thoughts, beliefs, and perceptions influence motivation. Job Characteristics Model A theory by Hackman and Oldham stating that certain job characteristics increase employee motivation. Hackman and Oldham The psychologists who developed the Job Characteristics Model. Skill Variety The extent to which a job requires different skills and talents. Task Identity The extent to which a job involves completing a whole piece of work from beginning to end. Task Significance The degree to which a job positively affects other people. Autonomy The amount of independence employees have in performing their work. Feedback Information employees receive about how effectively they are performing their job. Expectation Effects Golem Effect Low expectations from others can lead to poorer employee performance. Pygmalion Effect High expectations from others can improve employee performance. R ed Zone A situation where both self - expectations and others' expectations are low, resulting in poor performance. Galatea Effect High self - expectations improve a person's own performance. Herzberg's Two - Factor Theory Frederick Herzberg The psychologist who developed the Two - Factor Theory of motivation. Motivators Factors related to the work itself, such as achievement and recognition, that increase job satisfaction. Hygienes Work environment factors such as salary and company policy that prevent job dissatisfaction but do not create motivation. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow The psychologist who proposed the Hierarchy of Needs theory. Hierarchy of Needs A theory stating that people satisfy lower - level needs before higher - level needs. Physiological Needs Basic survival needs such as food, water, shelter, and sleep. Safety Needs The need for security, protection, and stability. Social Needs The need for friendship, love, acceptance, and belonging. Esteem Needs The need for respect, recognition, confidence, and achievement. Self - Actualization Needs The desire to reach one's fullest potential and achieve personal growth. McClelland's Theory David McClelland The psychologist who proposed the Achievement Motivation Theory. Achievement Motivation Theory A theory stating that work motivation is influenced by achievement, power, and affiliation needs. Need for Achievement The desire to accomplish difficult goals and excel. Need for Power The desire to influence or control other people. Need for Affiliation The desire to build friendly and close relationships with others. Reinforcement Theories Theories stating that behavior is strengthened by rewards and weakened by punishment. Goal - Setting Theory A theory stating that specific and challenging goals improve motivation and performance. SMART Goals A goal - setting method where goals are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time - bound. John Stacey Adams The psychologist who developed Equity Theory. Equity Theory A theory stating that employees compare their work inputs and outcomes with others to determine fairness. Productivity Ratio The comparison of outputs produced relative to the inputs invested. Output The results, rewards, or products produced by an employee. Input The effort, skills, time, and resources contributed by an employee. Organizational Justice Distributive Justice The perceived fairness of the rewards employees receive. Procedural Justice The perceived fairness of the procedures used to make decisions. Interactional Justice The perceived fairness of how employees are treated during decision - making. Definitions of Motivation Robbins and Judge (2011) Defined motivation as the intrinsic force that directs a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Corpuz (2000) Defined work motivation as the willingness to exert a high level of effort toward achieving organizational goals. Martires (1988) Defined work motivation as the intrinsic inducement that causes individuals to think, feel, and act in certain ways. Alderfer's ERG Theory Clayton Alderfer The psychologist who developed the ERG Theory. ERG Theory A motivation theory grouping needs into Existence, Relatedness, and Growth. Existence Basic material and physiological needs necessary for survival. Relatedness The need to establish and maintain meaningful interpersonal relationships. Growth The desire for personal development and realizing one's potential. Expectancy Theory Victor Vroom The psychologist who developed Expectancy Theory. Expectancy Theory A theory stating that motivation depends on the belief that effort leads to performance and rewards. Valence The value or importance an individual places on a reward. Instrumentality The belief that good performance will result in desired rewards. Expectancy The belief that effort will lead to successful performance. Goal - Setting Theory Edwin Locke The psychologist who developed Goal - Setting Theory. Goal - Setting Theory A theory stating that clear, challenging, and attainable goals improve motivation and performance. Filipino Values Pagkakamag - anak The Filipino value of maintaining strong family relationships and loyalty. Pagsusumikap The Filipino value of working hard and persevering to achieve success. Job - Related Needs Needs directly associated with performing work effectively. Organizational Needs Needs related to the workplace and organizational environment. Family - Related Needs Needs focused on supporting and caring for one's family. Career - Related Needs Needs involving career advancement and professional growth. Types of Motivation Intrinsically Motivated People People who work because they genuinely enjoy and value the work itself. Extrinsically Motivated People People who work primarily for external rewards such as salary, promotion, or recognition. Organizational Structure A system that defines how tasks, authority, and responsibilities are arranged to achieve organizational goals. Complexity The amount of differentiation in tasks, functions, and authority within an organization. Layer The number of management levels in an organization's hierarchy. Formalization The extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules, policies, and procedures. Types of Organizational Structure Tall Organization An organization with many management levels and a narrow span of control. Flat Organization An organization with fewer management levels and a wider span of control. Functional Structure An organizational structure that groups employees according to specialized job functions. Divisional Structure An organizational structure that groups employees into semi - independent divisions based on products, services, or locations. Matrix Structure A hybrid structure combining functional and divisional structures where employees report to multiple managers. Training The systematic process of improving employees' knowledge, skills, and attitudes to enhance job performance. Training Needs Assessment Organizational Analysis Determines whether organizational resources and conditions support effective training. Task Analysis Identifies the job tasks and the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform them. Person Analysis Determines which employees need training and what type of training they require. Steps in Designing and Evaluating Training Systems The process includes determining training needs, developing the program, selecting training methods, delivering training, and evaluating results. Creating Handouts Preparing training materials that include objectives, schedules, notes, activities, and evaluation forms. Presentation Tips Guidelines that help trainers communicate clearly, confidently, and effectively during training sessions. Training Methods Use of Case Studies to Apply Knowledge A method where trainees analyze real or hypothetical situations to improve decision - making and problem - solving. Using Simulation Exercises to Practice New Skills A method that allows trainees to practice job tasks in realistic work situations. P racticing Interpersonal Skills Through Role Play A training method where participants act out work situations to improve communication and interpersonal skills. Increasing Interpersonal Skills Through Behavior Modeling A training method in which employees observe, practice, and receive feedback on effective behaviors. Programmed Instruction A self - paced learning method using books or e - learning materials that allows trainees to progress at their own speed. On - the - Job Training (OJT) Training that occurs while employees perform their actual job duties. Social Learning Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others. Job Rotation A training method where employees work in different jobs to broaden their skills and experience. Apprentice Training A combination of classroom instruction and supervised practical work experience. Coaching A training method where an experienced employee provides guidance and feedback to improve performance. Mentoring A long - term developmental relationship in which a senior employee supports another employee's career growth. Leadership Concepts Born The belief that effective leaders naturally possess leadership traits. Made The belief that leadership skills can be developed through learning and experience. Leader Emergence The process by which individuals become recognized as leaders. Leader Performance The effectiveness of a leader in achieving goals and managing followers. Traits Stable personal characteristics associated with successful leadership. Needs Personal motives that influence a leader's behavior and decisions. Cognitive Ability The mental ability to solve problems, reason, and make effective decisions. Leadership Orientation Task Orientation A leadership style that focuses on accomplishing tasks and achieving organizational goals. Person Orientation A leadership style that focuses on employee welfare, relationships, and satisfaction. Unsuccessful Leaders Leaders who fail because of inadequate training, poor thinking skills, or ineffective personality traits. Situational Leader s hip Situational Favorability The degree to which a situation allows a leader to influence followers successfully. Organizational Climate The overall work environment that influences employee behavior and leadership effectiveness. Subordinate Ability The knowledge and skills employees possess to perform their work. Relationship with Subordinates The level of trust, respect, and communication between leaders and employees. Fiedler's Contingency Model A theory stating that leadership effectiveness depends on matching leadership style with the situation. IMPACT Leadership Styles IMPACT A model describing six leadership styles matched to different organizational climates. Informational Style Provides needed information when employees lack knowledge or understanding. Magnetic Style Motivates employees through enthusiasm and optimism during low morale. Position Style Leads through the authority associated with one's official position. Affiliation Style Builds teamwork by showing concern and care for employees. Coercive Style Uses rewards and punishment to manage employees during crises. Tactical Style Leads through planning and strategy when the organization is disorganized. Path – Goal Theory A theory stating that leaders should choose leadership behaviors that help employees achieve goals. Instrumental Leadership Provides structure by planning, organizing, and directing employee activities. Supportive Leadership Shows concern for employee well - being and creates a positive work environment. Participative Leadership Encourages employees to participate in decision - making. Achievement - Oriented Leadership Sets challenging goals and encourages high performance. Situational Leadership Theory A theory by Hersey and Blanchard stating that leaders should adjust their style based on follower readiness. Directing The leader gives specific instructions and closely supervises employee performance. Coaching The leader explains tasks, provides guidance, and encourages employee development. Supporting The leader provides encouragement and shares decision - making with employees. Delegating The leader gives employees responsibility and authority to perform tasks independently. Follower Readiness The employee's ability and willingness to perform a particular task. Readiness Levels R1 Employees are unable and unwilling or insecure, so they require directing. R2 Employees are unable but willing or confident, so they require coaching. R3 Employees are able but unwilling or insecure, so they require supporting. R4 Employees are able and willing or confident, so they require delegating. Specific Leader Skills Behaviors such as planning, communicating, motivating, problem - solving, and developing employees that improve leadership effectiveness. Types of Power Expert Power Power gained from possessing valuable knowledge or expertise. Legitimate Power Power obtained through an official leadership position. Reward and Coercive Power Power based on the ability to reward good behavior or punish poor behavior. Referent Power Power gained because employees admire, respect, or identify with the leader. Leadership Styles Vision Transactional Leadership A leadership style based on rewarding good performance and correcting mistakes. Transformational Leadership A leadership style that inspires employees by changing their values, goals, and commitment. Persuasion Persuasion by Communication The ability to influence others through effective, clear, and convincing communication. Biodata Approaches File Approach A biodata method that evaluates information already found in an applicant's records or personnel files. Questionnaire Approach A biodata method that gathers information by asking applicants to answer structured questions about their experiences. Reinforcement and Incentives Organizational Behavior Modification (OBM) The application of reinforcement principles to increase desirable employee behaviors and reduce undesirable ones. Timing of Incentive Rewards are most effective when they are given immediately after good performance. Contingency of Consequences Employees should receive rewards or consequences that are directly linked to their performance. Type of Incentive Used The kind of reward or consequence selected influences employee motivation. Individual - Based Incentives Rewards are given according to each employee's individual performance. Group - Based Incentives Rewards are based on the performance of a team or group. Positive Incentives Rewards used to encourage desirable employee behavior. Negative Incentives Punishments or unpleasant consequences used to discourage undesirable behavior. Fairness of the Reward System (Equity) Employees are more motivated when they believe rewards are distributed fairly. Organizational Structure Degree of Centralization The extent to which decision - making authority is concentrated at higher levels of the organization. Developing a Training Program The process of creating training objectives, content, activities, and learning methods. Choosing the Best Training Method Selecting the training approach that best fits the learning objectives and employees' needs. Delivering the Training Program The actual presentation and implementation of training activities. Introducing the Trainer and Training Session The opening activity that introduces the trainer, objectives, and expectations for the program. Icebreakers Activities designed to help participants feel comfortable and interact with one another. Energizers Short activities used to increase participants' energy and attention during training. Motivating Employees to Attend Training Encouraging employees to participate by making training useful, interesting, and rewarding. Motivating Employees to Perform Well in Training Using incentives and feedback to encourage active learning during training. Motivating Employees to Use Their Training on the Job Creating opportunities and support so employees apply newly learned skills at work. Types of Trainers In - House Trainers Employees within the organization who conduct training programs. External Trainers Professionals from outside the organization hired to conduct training. Training Locations Onsite Training Training conducted within the organization's workplace. Offsite Training Training conducted at a location away from the workplace. Length of Training Distributed Learning Training spread over several shorter sessions to improve learning and retention. Massed Learning Training delivered in one long session with few or no breaks. Evaluation of Training Prete st – Posttest Design A method that measures learning by comparing employee performance before and after training. Pretest – Posttest Control Group Design A method that compares trained employees with an untrained control group to determine training effectiveness. Individual Leader Skills Initiate Ideas Informally Interact with Subordinates Stand Up for and Support Subordinates Take Responsibility Develop Group Atmosphere Organize and Structure Work Communicate Formally with Subordinates Reward and Punish Subordinates Set Goals Make Decisions Train and Develop Employee Skills Solve Problems Generate Enthusiasm Transactional Leadership Dimensions Contingent Reward A leadership behavior in which employees receive rewards for meeting performance expectations. Management by Exception (Active) The leader actively monitors employee performance and corrects mistakes immediately. Management by Exception (Passive) The leader waits until problems become serious before taking corrective action.