Softwar: A Novel Theory on Power Projection and the National Strategic Significance of Bitcoin by Jason P. Lowery M.S. Astronautical Engineering, Air Forc e Institut e of Technology (2017) B.S. Mechanical Engineering, Baylor University (2010) Submitted to the System Design and Management Program in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Engineering and Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology February 2023 © 2023 Jason Lowery is licens ed under CC BY 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in p art in any medium now known or hereafter created. Authored by: Jason P. Lowery System Design and Management Program January 2 0 , 2023 A pproved by: Joan Rubin Executive Director, System Design & Management Program A ccepted by: Warren Seering Weber - Shaughness Professor of Mechanical Engineering DISTRIBUTION A. Approved for public release: distribution unlimited. This page was intentionally left blank 3 Softwar: A Novel Theory on Power Projection and the National Strategic Significance of Bitcoin by Jason P. Lowery Submitted to the System Design and Management Program February 2023 in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science in Engineering and Management ABSTRACT Current analysis of Bitcoin’s underlying proof - of - work technology is almost exclusively based on financial, monetary , or economic theor y Recycling the same theoretical frameworks when performing hypothesis - deductive analysis of Bitcoin has the potential to create systemic - level analytical bias which could negatively impact public policy making efforts and could even pose a threat to US national security T his thesis introduces a novel theoretical framework for analyzing the potential national strategic impact of Bitcoin as a n electro - cyber security technology rather than a peer - to - peer cash system The goal of this thesis is to give the research community a different frame of reference they c an utilize to generate hypotheses and deductively analyze the potential risks and rewards of proof - of - work tec hnologies as something other than strictly monetary technology. The author asserts it w ould be beneficial for researchers to explore alternative functionality of proof - of - work technolog ies to eliminate potential blind spots, provide a more well - rounded understanding of the risks and rewards of proof - of - work protocols like Bitcoin , and positively contribute to the development of more informed public policy in support of the March 2022 US Presidential Executive Order on Ensuring the Respo nsible Development of Digital Assets and the May 2022 US Presidential Executive Order on Improving the Nation’s Cybersecurity. Utilizing a grounded theory methodology , the author combines different concepts from diverse fields of knowledge (e.g. biology, psychology, anthropology, political science, computer science, systems security, and modern military strategic theory) to formulate a novel framework called “Power Projection Theory.” Based on the core concepts of Power Projection Theory, the author induct ively reasons that proof - of - work technologies like Bitcoin could not only function as monetary technology, but could also ( and perhaps more importantly ) function as a new form of electro - cyber power projection technology which could empower nations to secure their most precious bits of information (including but not limited to financial bits of information) against belligerent actors by giving them the ability to impos e severe physical costs on other nations in, from, and through cyberspace. The author calls this n ovel power projection tactic “softwar” and explores its potential imp act on national strategic security in the 21 st century. Like most grounded theory research efforts, the primary deliverable of this thesis is a n ovel theory rather than deduct ive analysis of a hypothes i s derived from exist ing theor y Thesis Superv isor: Joan Rubin Executive Director, System Design & Management Program 4 Acknowledgements First I would like to thank General C.Q. Brown for giving me the courage and top - cover to devote myself to this research topic, and to the Department of the Air Force for entrusting me with this assignment. I would also like to thank everyone in my personal life who tolerated the amount of time and mental effort I committed to this . You gave me the continual support and confidence I needed to follow through. This endeavor turned out to be more challenging than I expected, in ways that I never would have expect ed , and your support ( plus your sacrifice) played an essential role. I would like to thank everyone who helped me f ormulate this grounded theor y . When I first indicat ed my interest in this topic, I could not have imagined the amount of feedback I would receive. I feel very thankful for everyone who took the time to listen to me and challenge my reasoning . Y our discourse helped me question my biases and push ed me to formulate the structure of th e the ory as it exists today I owe the success of this research effort to you . Thank y ou for your sincere feedback I look forward to future discussion and debate. It’s impossible for me to list everyone who I wish to thank by name, but a few specific people I want to give thanks to are as follows : Adam Back, Greg Foss, Robert Breedlove, Jeff Booth, P re ston Pysh, Level39, Michael Saylor, Natalie Smolenski, Asher68W, Mi k e Alfred, Dennis P orter, Jason Williams, Luke Gromen, Jim O’ Flaherty, SusieB, Max and Stacie Keiser, Peter McCormack, Anthony, Joe, and John Pompliano, Natalie Brunell, Ben Prentice, Joe Burnett, Matthew Pines, Erin Malone, Brandon Quittem, Brian Harrington, Tomer Strolight, George Peacock, Nathan Perry, Cory Swan, Dylan LeClair, Tuur Demeester, MarbellaHODL, Bobby von Hodlwitz, Ck_SNARKs, Mike Hobart, Wealth Theory, Alex Gladstein, Joseph Aguirre, Ghazaleh Victoria, Tarun Chattoraj, Eric Hart, Samson Mow, Phil Dubois, Jimmy Song, Nik Bhatia, Kelly Lannan, Dan Held, Poens , w_s_bitcoin, Mark Moss , and many , many others . It has truly been a pleasure engaging with you I would also like to thank Rebecca for the custom drawings she provided. 5 Biograph y Major Jason “Spook” Lowery is a Department of Defense (DoD) sponsored US National Defense Fellow , Department of the Air Force Fellow, MIT System Design and Management Fellow, astronautical engineer , and active - duty technology and innovation officer in the US Space Force (USSF) Prior to attending MIT, Jason served as the director of operations for the USSF Second Space Launch Squadron Before that, he was a founding member of the cadre of officer s who stood up USSF , serv ing as the deputy chief of the commander’s action group for US SF Space Operations Command and US Space Command (USSPACECOM) Combined Force Space Component Command (CFSCC) Jason transferred into USSF from the US Air Force (USAF) , where he served as a n all - source intelligence analyst and subject matter expert in electronic warfare , blast and ballistics effects , and space weapon system design Jason ha s a decade of experience serving as a technical advisor for US senior official s , to include the Office of the President of the United States (OPOTUS) , Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSECDEF) , and the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI) He has a master’s degree in astronautical engineering from Air Force Institute of Technology , Ohio and a bachelor’s degree in mechanical engineering from Baylor University , Texas 6 Table of Contents List of Figures ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 8 List of Tables ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 11 Executive Summary ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 13 Chapter 1: Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 16 1.1 Inspiration ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 16 1.2 Justification ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 18 1.3 Background ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 25 1.4 Objective ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 34 1.5 Thesis Structure ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 38 Chapter 2: Methodology ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 42 2.1 Four Reasons for Grounded Theory ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 42 2.2 Overview ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 44 2.3 Process ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 48 2.4 Disadvantages & Advantages ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 55 2.5 Lessons Learned ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 56 Chapter 3: Power Projection Tactics in Nature ................................ ................................ ........................... 59 3.1 Introducing Power Projection Theory ................................ ................................ ............................... 59 3.2 Physical Power & Resource Ownership ................................ ................................ ............................ 60 3.3 Life’s War against Entropy ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 64 3.4 Primordial Economics ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 67 3.5 Innovate or Die ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 70 3.6 The Survivor’s Dilemma ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 75 3.7 Chasing Infinite Prosperity ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 79 3.8 Sticking Together ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 83 3.9 Pack Animals ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 90 3.10 Domestication is Dangerous ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 94 3.11 Physical Power - Based Resource Control ................................ ................................ ....................... 106 3.12 The Beauty of Antlers ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 111 Chapter 4: Power Projection Tactics i n Human Society ................................ ................................ ............ 117 4.1 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 117 4.2 A Whole New World ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 119 4.3 How to Detect if Something is Real ................................ ................................ ................................ 124 4.4 Evolution of Abstract Thinking ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 130 4.5 Understanding Abstract Power ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 145 4.6 Creating Abstract Power ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 163 4.7 Abstract Power Hierarchies ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 167 4.8 Dysfunctions of Abstract Power ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 175 4.9 Emergent Benefits of Warfighting ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 193 4.10 National Strategic Security ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 213 4.11 Mutually Assured Destructi on ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 220 4.12 Humans Need Antlers ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 231 7 Chapter 5: Power Projection Tactics in Cyberspace ................................ ................................ ................. 244 5.1 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 244 5.2 Thinking Machines ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 246 5.3 A New (Exploitable) Belief System ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 250 5.4 Software Security Challenges ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 257 5.5 Creating Abstract Power Hierarchies using Software ................................ ................................ ..... 272 5.6 Physically Resisting Neo - Technocratic God - Kings ................................ ................................ ........... 279 5.7 Projecting Physical Power in, from, and through Cyberspace ................................ ........................ 286 5.8 Electro - Cyber Dome Security Concept ................................ ................................ ............................ 297 5.9 Novel Computer Theo ry about Bitcoin ................................ ................................ ........................... 302 5.10 There is No Second Best ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 323 5.11 Softwar ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 340 5.12 Mutually Assured Preservation ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 358 Chapter 6: Recommendations & Conclusion ................................ ................................ ............................ 370 6.1 Key Takeaways ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 370 6.2 Recommendations for Future Research ................................ ................................ ......................... 377 6.3 Recommendations for Future Policy Making Efforts ................................ ................................ ...... 378 6.4 Closing Thoughts ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 382 References ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 386 8 List of Figures Figure 1: Five Ways to Impose Severe Physical Costs on Attackers in Five Different Domains .................. 13 Figure 2: Tesla & Ford's Theories Could Manifest as an Open - Source Computer Protocol ....................... 17 Figure 3: A Domesticated Wolf Wearing a Wolf Collar ................................ ................................ ............... 22 Figure 4: Four Phases of Grounded Theory Development ................................ ................................ ......... 48 Figure 5: G eneral Construction of a Grounded Theory ................................ ................................ .............. 51 Figure 6: Conceptual Diagram Generated During Data Coding ................................ ................................ .. 52 Figure 7: Core Categories Chosen for this Research Effort ................................ ................................ ......... 54 Figure 8: Organism Signaling Ownership of a Resource using the Proof - of - Power Protocol ..................... 62 Figure 9: Illustration of One of Life’s Most Dominant Power Projection Tactics ................................ ........ 64 Figure 10: Illustration of an Early - Stage Global Superpower ................................ ................................ ...... 66 Figure 11: The Benefit - to - Cost Ratio of Attack (BCR A ) a.k.a. Primordial Economics ................................ .. 67 Figure 12: Prosperity Margin Changes among Different Environments ................................ ..................... 68 Figure 13: Prosperity Margin Changes amongst Different Organisms ................................ ....................... 69 Figure 14: Apex predator using Phagocytosis to Devour a Neighboring Organism with High BCR A .......... 71 Figure 15: A Warm - Blooded Organism that Sparked an Ecological Arms Race ................................ .......... 73 Figure 16: An Illustration of The Survivor’s Dilemma ................................ ................................ ................. 76 Figure 17: Bowtie Notation of Primordial Economics ................................ ................................ ................. 80 Figure 18: Bowtie Illustration of Three Power Projection Strategies for Pursuing Infinite Prosperity ....... 81 Figure 19: Illustration of the “Grow C A First, Grow B A Second” Survival Strategy using Bowtie Notation 87 Figure 20: Step 1 of “Bigger Fish” Scenario ................................ ................................ ................................ 87 Figure 21: Step 2 of “Bigger Fish” Scenario ................................ ................................ ................................ 88 Figure 22: Step 3 of “Bigger Fish” Scenario ................................ ................................ ................................ 88 Figure 23: Step 4 of “Bigger Fish” Scenario ................................ ................................ ................................ 89 Figure 24: Bowtie Not ation of Organisms Forming Organizations ................................ ............................. 92 Figure 25: Bowtie Representation of Domestication ................................ ................................ ................ 101 Figure 26: Bowtie Representation of Different Pecking Order Heuristics ................................ ................ 107 Figure 27: Physical Power - Based Resource Control Protocol used in the Wild (Part 1/4) ....................... 109 Figure 28: Physical Power - Based Resource Control Protocol used in the Wild (Part 2/4) ....................... 110 Figure 29: Physical Power - Based Resource Control Protocol used in the Wild (Complete Build) ............ 111 Figure 30: A Power Projection Strategy Prone to Causing Injury ................................ ............................. 112 Figure 31: Awkward - Looking & Underappreciated Power Projection Technology ................................ .. 114 Figure 32: Comparison Between a Sapient Brain and That of its Closest - Surviving Ancestor .................. 119 Figure 33: An Anatomically Modern Homosapien with its Characteristically Large Forehead ................ 121 Figure 34: Illustration of the Bi - Directional Nature of Abstract Thinking ................................ ................. 122 Figure 35: Illustration of How Practically Impossible it is Not to Think Symbolically ............................... 124 Figure 36: Model of a Realness - Verification Algorithm Performed by Sapient Brains ............................. 125 Figure 37: False Positive Correlation Produced by the Brain’s Realness - Verification Algorithm ............. 126 Figure 38: The Poking/Pinching Realness - Verification Protocol ................................ ............................... 128 Figure 39: Primordial Economic Dynamics of Hunting ................................ ................................ ............. 131 Figure 40: Illustration of a Hunting Strategy Mastered by Humans ................................ ......................... 132 Figure 41: Example of how Fish Communicate Differently than Mammals ................................ ............. 134 Figure 42: Illustration of the Metacognitive Impact of Storytelling (forming Shared Abstract Reality) ... 138 Figure 43: A God - King Exploiting a Population’s Belief System ................................ ................................ 148 9 Figure 44: A Repeating Cycle of Human History ................................ ................................ ....................... 150 Figure 45: Captain Elizabeth Eastman does a Pre - Flight Inspection of her A - 10 Thunderbolt II. ............. 152 Figure 46: Chief Justice Anthony Dudley Presides Over the Supreme Court of Gibraltar. ....................... 1 54 Figure 47: False Positive Correlation Produced by the Brain’s Realness - Verification Algorithm ............. 158 Figure 48: A Strategy for Passive - Aggressively Creating and Wielding Abstract Power ........................... 164 Figure 49: Model of the Resource Control Structure created by Natural Selection ................................ 171 Figure 50: Model of the Resource Control Structure attempted by Neolithic Sapiens ............................ 172 Figure 51: Bowtie Illustration of How to Domesticate Humans ................................ ............................... 187 Figure 52: A More Accurate Model of the Resource Control Structure Adopted by Modern Society ..... 214 Figure 53: Illustration of the National Strategic Security Dilemma ................................ .......................... 218 Figure 54: Bowtie Notation of the Primordial Economic Dynamics of National Strategic Security ......... 223 Figure 55: How the Cycle of War Creates a “Blockchain” ................................ ................................ ......... 230 Figure 56: Evolution of Physical Power Projection Technologies Developed by Agrarian Society ........... 232 Figure 57: Evolution of Physical Power Projection Technology, Shown with an Attempted Fork ........... 238 Figure 58: Evolution of Physical Power Projection Technology, Shown with Non - Kinetic End State ....... 241 Figure 59: Illustration of the Difference Between Traditional Language and Machine Code .................. 251 Figure 60: False Positive Correlation Produced by the Brain’s Realness - Verification Algorithm ............. 255 Figure 61: Example of a Logically Flawed Engineering Design that’s Physically Impossible ..................... 262 Figure 62: Modern Agrarian Homosapien Losing His Grip on Physical Reality ................................ ......... 269 Figure 63: Software Administrators with Abstract Power over Digital - Age Resources ............................ 275 Figure 64: A Repeating Pattern of Human Power Projection Tactics ................................ ....................... 285 Figure 65: Illustration of Two Ways to Constrain a Computer Program ................................ ................... 287 Figure 66: “Chain Down” Design Concept for Physically Constraining Computers ................................ .. 289 Figure 67: Security Protocol Design Concept of a Deliberately Inefficient State Mechanism .................. 290 Figure 68: Visualization of the Two - step Process of Adam Back’s Physical Cost Function Protocol ........ 294 Figure 69: Illustration of Two Different Types of Control Signals ................................ ............................. 295 Figure 70: Design Concept of a “Proof - of - Power Wall” Cyber Security API ................................ ............. 297 Figure 71: Illustration of the “Electro - Cyber Dome” Concept using Proof - of - Power Wall APIs ............... 300 Figure 72: Bitcoin is a Recursive System Which Secures Itself Behind its Own “Electro - Cyber D ome” ... 302 Figure 73: Utilizing the Global Electric Power Grid as a Computer ................................ .......................... 305 Figure 74: Planetary - Scale Computer Design Concept ................................ ................................ ............. 306 Figure 75: Using a Planetary Computer to “Chain Down” Regular Computers ................................ ........ 309 Figure 76: Difference between Regular Computer Programs and Physical Cost Function Protocols ...... 310 Figure 77: Bitcoin is a Physical Cost Function Protocol which Utilizes the Planet as a Computer ........... 311 Figure 78: Illustration of how Physical Cost Functions Convert Quantities of Power into Bits ................ 312 Figure 79: Bi - Directional Abstract Thought & Symbolism Applied to a Planetary Computer .................. 315 Figure 80: A Capability Gap for Brains Operating in the Abstract Reality Known as Cyberspace ............ 317 Figure 81: Theoretical Effect of Plugging a Planetary - Scale State Mechanism into the Internet ............. 320 Figure 82: Illustration of Physical and Systemic Differences between Technologies ............................... 323 Figure 83: Illustrating the Physical Differences between Different Technologies ................................ .... 325 Figure 84: Breakdown of a Proof - of - Work Tech Stack ................................ ................................ .............. 327 Figure 85: Illustration of the Difference Between Proof - of - Work & Proof - of - Stake Protocols ................ 330 Figure 86: Side - by - Side Comparison between Proof - of - Work Proof - of - Stake Resource Control Models 333 Figure 87: Software Administrators with “Stake” in Ethereum 2.0 ................................ .......................... 337 Figure 88: Graphical Illustration of Bitpower Concept ................................ ................................ ............. 338 10 Figure 89: Illustration of the Difference Between Public Perception & Reality of Bitcoin’s Dominance 339 Figure 90: Gabriel's Horn ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 341 Figure 91: Visualizing Nakamoto’s Bitpower Tokens as Surface Area on a Gabriel’s Horn ...................... 343 Figure 92: Logically Paradoxical Power Conversion Dynamics of Nakamoto’s Bitcoin Protocol .............. 345 Figure 93: Illustration of the Third Step added by Finney’s Physical Cost Function Protocol .................. 352 Figure 94: Evolution of Physical Power Projection Technologies, with Bitcoin Shown as End State ....... 364 Figure 95: Comparison between “Hard” and “Soft” Warfighting Dynamics ................................ ............ 369 Figure 96: Notional Combatant Component Dedicated to Securing Allied Hashing Industry .................. 380 Figure 97: Illustration of Softwar Concept ................................ ................................ ................................ 385 11 List of Tables Table 1: Applications of Abstract Thinking ................................ ................................ ............................... 130 Table 2: Characteristics of Captain Eastman's Real/Physical Power ................................ ........................ 152 Table 3: Characteristics of Chief Justice Dudley's Imaginary/Abstract Power ................................ .......... 154 Table 4: Examples of Modern - Day Abstract Power Hierarchy Designs ................................ .................... 170 12 Acronyms ABP Abstract - Power - Based BCR A Benefit - to - Cost Ratio of Attack B A Benefit of Attack C A Cost of Attack CCCH C ongested, C ontested, C ompetitive, & H ostile CFSCC Combined Force Space Component Command DoD Department of Defense EO Executive Order OPOTUS Office of the President of the United States OSECDEF Office of the Secretary of Defense MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology PPB Physical - Power - Based SDM System Design & Management US United States USAF United States Air Force USSF United States Space Force USSPACECOM United States Space Command 13 Executive Summary Figure 1 shows five different ways that machinery can be used to impose severe physical costs on others in, from, and through five different domains. The image at the bottom shows the specialized mach inery that is currently being used to keep special bits of information called “Bitcoin” secure against belligerent actors. This image illustrates the bottom line of this thesis, which is that Bitcoin isn’t strictly a monetary protocol. Instead, Bitcoin app ears to be emerging as a cyber power projection tactic for the digital age While most software can only logically constrain computers, Bitcoin can physically constrain computers and impos e severe physical costs (as measured in watts) on belligerent actors in, from, and through cyberspace. Bitcoin’s global adoption could therefore represent a revolutionary approach to cyber security and could dramatically reshape how digital - age societies secure their most valuable resources. Figure 1 : Five Ways to Impose Severe Physical Costs on Attackers in Five Different Domains [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] 14 Bitcoin could represent a strategically vital national security technology for the digital age. However, the American public may not understand why Bitcoin has the potential to be so strategically important because they don’t appear to understand the compl exity of (1) the computer theory behind the design concept called “proof - of - work,” (2) modern power projection tactics, (3) the function of militaries, or (4) the profession of warfighting. If the theories presented in this thesis prove to be valid, then t he American public’s lack of understanding about these core concepts could jeopardize US national strategic security. The future of US national strategic security hinges upon cyber security, and Bitcoin has demonstrated that “proof - of - work” functions as a new type of cyber security system. Nations appear to be waking up to the potentially substantial strategic benefits of Bitcoin and learning that it could be in their best strategic interest to adopt it (hence Russian’s recent 180 - degree pivot to supporti ng Bitcoin). Another cold war could be kicking off, except instead of a space race, it could be a cyber space race. As is often the case with the emergence of any new power projection technology, speed of adoption may be critical. If the US does not consider stockpiling strategic Bitcoin reserves, or at the very least encouraging Bitcoin adoption, the author believes the US could forfeit a strategically vital power projection technology lead to one of its greatest competitors and se t itself back in global power dominance. The current approach that US leaders are taking to analyze the potential risks and benefits of proof - of - work technologies like Bitcoin could therefore represent a threat to US national security. It is particularly c oncerning that US policymakers have arbitrarily chosen to categorize Bitcoin as “cryptocurrency” and tacitly allow institutions with conflicts of interest to claim to be experts in proof - of - work technology. These institutions could use their misperceived e xpertise to influence public policy making efforts for their own benefit, compromising US national strategic security in the process. Computer scientists have been researching proof - of - work protocols for over 30 years – that’s more than twice as long as B itcoin has existed. Since the beginning of this research endeavor, it was hypothesized that proof - of - work protocols could serve as a new type of cyber security system that could empower people to keep computer resources (namely their most valuable bits of information) secure against hacking and exploitation simply by imposing severe physical costs (in the form of computer power) on belligerent actors trying to access or interfere with that information. In other words, computer scientists rediscovered what m ilitary officers have known about physical security for thousands of years: to stop or deter bad guys from doing bad things, make it too physically expensive for them to do those bad things. While academia theorized via formal academic channels about how proof - of - work c ould work, software engineers and “doers” like Adam Back, Hal Finney, and Satoshi Nakamoto designed, built, and deployed several operational prototypes via informal, non - academic channels. Today, Bitcoin has emerged as by far the most global ly - adopted proof - of - work cyber security system to date. Bitcoin is so physically powerful in comparison to other open - source proof - of - work protocols that a popular mantra has emerged, initiated by technologist Michael Saylor (MIT ’87): “There is no second best.” [6] But what could Bitcoin possibly have to do with warfare? To understand this connection, one must recall the primary function of militaries. Sovereign nations have a fiduciary responsibility to their people to protect and defend access to international thoroughfares (e.g. land, sea, air, space) to preserve freedom of action and the ability to exchange goods with other nations. When a nation intentionally degrades another nation’s freedom of action or ability to exchange goods across these thoroughfares, that activity is often considered to be an act of war. Militaries exist explicitly to protect and defend people’s access to these thoroughfares. The way militaries accomplish this is by imposing severe physical co sts on those who try to deny access to these thoroughfares or impede a population’s ability to exchange goods across them. 15 Military branches are categorized based on the thoroughfare they assure access to and preserve freedom of action in. Armies assure a ccess to land. Naval forces assure access to the sea. Air forces assure access to the sky. Space forces assure access to space. Regardless of the domain to which access is secured, each service effectively works the same way: preserve the nation’s ability to utilize each thoroughfare by imposing severe physical costs on anyone who denies access to it. Physical power is used to stop and deter belligerent activity in, from, and through these thoroughfares. The more physically powerful, motivated, and aggressi ve a military is, the better it usually performs. The more a military service can utilize technology to project power in clever ways, the more effective it is at its primary value - delivered function. One of the most strategically important thoroughfares o f the 21st century is colloquially known as “cyberspace.” It is of vital national strategic interest for every nation to preserve their ability to exchange a precious resource across this thoroughfare: valuable bits of information. Just like they already d o for land, sea, air, and space, sovereign nations have both a right and a fiduciary responsibility to their people to protect and defend their access to this international thoroughfare. If a nation were to intentionally degrade another’s freedom of action or ability to exchange valuable bits of information across cyberspace, that activity would likely be interpreted as an act of war , as it would in any other domain. Until Bitcoin, nations have not had an effective way to physically secure their ability to freely exchange bits of information across cyberspace without resorting to kinetic (i.e. lethal) power. This is because they have not had access to technology which enables them to impose severe physical costs on belligerent actors in, from, and through c yberspace. This appears to have changed with the discovery of open - source proof - of - work technologies like Bitcoin – a complex system which empowers people to physically restrain belligerent actors. This technology works, and adoption has already scaled to the nation - state level. Thanks to proof - of - work protocols like Bitcoin, nations can now utilize special machinery to impose severe physical restrictions on other nations in, from, and through cyberspace in a completely non - destructive and non - lethal manne r. This capability has the potential to transform cyber security by enabling computer networks to run computer programs which don’t give a specific group of users special or unimpeachable permissions over the computer network and entrusts them not to explo it those permissions. With the ability to impose severe physical costs on users through cyberspace, zero - trust computer networks (and a new type of internet) can now be designed where users can have their special permissions physically revoked if they abus e or exploit them. The first computer network to prove this design concept appears to be the network of computers utilizing Bitcoin. Bitcoin is proof that proof - of - work works At its core, Bitcoin is a computer network that transfers bits of information b etween computers using a zero - trust physical security design. As previously mentioned, bits of information can represent any type of information, including but not limited to financial information that might be used to support international payments and fi nancial settlements. It makes perfect sense that a proof - of - work computer network’s first use case would be to physically secure the exchange of vital financial bits of information, but that is clearly not the only use case. This technology could have far wider - reaching applications, as there are many other types of precious information that society would want to physically secure in the information age. To that end, Bitcoin could represent the dawn of an entirely new form of military - grade, electro - cyber i nformation security capability – a protocol that people and nations could utilize to raise cyber forces and defend their freedom of action in, from, and through cyberspace. The bottom line is that Bitcoin could represent a “softwar” or electro - cyber defens e protocol, not merely a peer - to - peer electronic cash system. The author believes proof - of - work technology could change the future of national strategic security and international power dynamics in ways that we have barely started to understand. 16 Chapter 1: Introduction “We cannot abolish war by outlawing it. We cannot end it by disarming the strong. War can be stopped, not by making the strong weak but by making every nation, weak or strong, able to defend itself. If no