This page intentionally left blank t h i r d e d i t i o n how children DEVELOP This page intentionally left blank t h i r d e d i t i o n how children DEVELOP Robert Siegler Carnegie Mellon University Judy DeLoache University of Virginia Nancy Eisenberg Arizona State University And Campbell Leaper, University of California–Santa Cruz, reviser of Chapter 15: Gender Development WORTH PUBLISHERS This is dedicated to the ones we love Senior Publisher: Catherine Woods Senior Acquisitions Editor: Charles Linsmeier Development Editor: Peter Deane Executive Marketing Manager: Katherine Nurre Senior Media Editor: Andrea Musick Production Editor: Vivien Weiss, Leo Kelly (MPS Limited, A Macmillan Company) Associate Managing Editor: Tracey Kuehn Production Manager: Sarah Segal Art Director: Barbara Reingold Interior Designer, Cover Designer: Kevin Kall Photo Editor: Bianca Moscatelli Photo Researcher: Julie Tesser Senior Illustration Coordinator: Bill Page Illustrations: Todd Buck Illustration; Precision Graphics; TSI Graphics, Inc.; MPS Limited, A Macmillan Company Composition: MPS Limited, A Macmillan Company Printing and Binding: Worldcolor Versailles Library of Congress Control Number: 2009941919 ISBN-10: 1-4292-1790-1 ISBN-13: 978-1-4292-1790-3 © 2011, 2006, 2003 by Worth Publishers All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America First printing 2010 Worth Publishers 41 Madison Avenue New York, NY 10010 www.worthpublishers.com v About the Authors Robert Siegler is the Teresa Heinz Professor of Cognitive Psychology at Carnegie Mellon University. He is author of the cognitive development textbook Children’s Thinking and has written or edited several additional books on child development. His books have been translated into Japanese, Korean, Spanish, French, and Portuguese. In the past few years, he has presented keynote addresses at the conventions of the Cognitive Development Society, the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development, the Japanese Psychological Association, the Eastern Psychological Association, and the Conference on Human Development. He also has served as Associate Editor of the journal Developmental Psychology, co-edited the cognitive development volume of the 2006 Handbook of Child Psychology, and served on the National Mathematics Advisory Panel from 2006–2008. In 2005, Dr. Siegler received the American Psychological Association’s Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award. Judy DeLoache is the William R. Kenan Jr. Professor of Psychology at the University of Virginia. She has published extensively on aspects of cognitive development in infants and young children. Dr. DeLoache has served as president of the Developmental Division of the American Psychological Association and as a member of the executive board of the International Society for the Study of Infancy. She is currently the president-elect of the Cognitive Development Society. She has presented major invited addresses at professional meetings, including the Association for Psychological Science and the Society for Research on Child Development. Dr. DeLoache is the holder of a Scientific MERIT Award from the National Institutes of Health, and her research is also funded by the National Science Foundation. She has been a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences and at the Rockefeller Foundation Study Center in Bellagio, Italy. She was recently inducted into the National Academy of Arts and Sciences. Nancy Eisenberg is Regent’s Professor of Psychology at Arizona State University. She is editor or author of numerous books on prosocial, social, and emotional development. For example, she edited The Handbook on Child Psychology, Volume III: Social, Emotional, and Personality Development. She is also the author of The Caring Child and of The Roots of Prosocial Behavior in Children (with Paul Mussen). She has been on the board of directors of the Association of Psychological Science, governing council of the Society for Research in Child Development, and the governing council of the American Psychological Association. Dr. Eisenberg was the associate editor of the Merrill-Palmer Quarterly and of the Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, was editor of the Psychological Bulletin, is the founding editor of Child Development Perspectives, is the president-elect of Division 7 (Developmental Psychology) at the American Psychological Association, and served as president of the Western Psychological Association. She has been the recipient of several National Institutes of Health Career Development and Career Scientist awards. She is the 2007 recipient of the Ernest R. Hilgard Award for a Career Contribution to General Psychology, Division 1, American Psychological Association; the 2008 recipient of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award; and the 2009 recipient of the G. Stanley Hall Award for Distinguished Contribution to Developmental Psychology, Division 7, American Psychological Association. This page intentionally left blank vii Brief Contents Preface xix 1 An Introduction to Child Development 1 2 Prenatal Development and the Newborn Child 41 3 Biology and Behavior 83 4 Theories of Cognitive Development 127 5 Seeing, Thinking, and Doing in Infancy 175 6 Development of Language and Symbol Use 215 7 Conceptual Development 259 8 Intelligence and Academic Achievement 297 9 Theories of Social Development 341 10 Emotional Development 381 11 Attachment to Others and Development of Self 423 12 The Family 463 13 Peer Relationships 503 14 Moral Development 543 15 Gender Development 583 16 Conclusions 623 Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index NI-1 Subject Index SI-1 viii Contents Preface xix Chapter 1 An Introduction to Child Development 1 Why Study Child Development? 3 Raising Children 3 Choosing Social Policies 4 Understanding Human Nature 6 Review 8 Historical Foundations of the Study of Child Development 8 Early Philosophers’ Views of Children’s Development 8 Social Reform Movements 9 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution 10 The Emergence of Child Development as a Discipline 10 Review 11 Enduring Themes in Child Development 11 1 Nature and Nurture: How Do Nature and Nurture Together Shape Development? 11 2 The Active Child: How Do Children Shape Their Own Development? 12 3 Continuity/Discontinuity: In What Ways Is Development Continuous, and in What Ways Is It Discontinuous? 14 4 Mechanisms of Developmental Change: How Does Change Occur? 17 5 The Sociocultural Context: How Does the Sociocultural Context Influence Development? 19 6 Individual Differences: How Do Children Become So Different from One Another? 21 7 Research and Children’s Welfare: How Can Research Promote Children’s Well-Being? 23 Review 24 Methods for Studying Child Development 24 The Scientific Method 25 Contexts for Gathering Data About Children 27 Correlation and Causation 29 Designs for Examining Development 34 Ethical Issues in Child-Development Research 36 Review 38 Chapter Summary 38 Chapter 2 Prenatal Development and the Newborn Period 41 Prenatal Development 43 Box 2.1 A Closer Look: Beng Beginnings 43 ix Conception 44 Box 2.2 Individual Differences: The First—and Last—Sex Differences 46 Developmental Processes 47 Box 2.3 A Closer Look: Phylogenetic Continuity 48 Early Development 49 An Illustrated Summary of Prenatal Development 50 Fetal Behavior 53 Fetal Experience 55 Fetal Learning 56 Hazards to Prenatal Development 58 Box 2.4 Applications: Face Up to Wake Up 63 Review 67 The Birth Experience 67 Diversity of Childbirth Practices 68 Review 70 The Newborn Infant 70 State of Arousal 70 Negative Outcomes at Birth 74 Box 2.5 Applications: Parenting a Low-Birth-Weight Baby 76 Review 79 Chapter Summary 80 Chapter 3 Biology and Behavior 83 Nature and Nurture 85 Genetic and Environmental Forces 86 Box 3.1 Applications: Genetic Transmission of Diseases and Disorders 92 Behavior Genetics 95 Box 3.2 Individual Differences: Identical Twins Reared Apart 98 Review 101 Brain Development 102 Structures of the Brain 102 Developmental Processes 104 Box 3.3 A Closer Look: Mapping the Mind 105 The Importance of Experience 110 Brain Damage and Recovery 114 Review 115 The Body: Physical Growth and Development 115 Growth and Maturation 115 Nutritional Behavior 117 Box 3.4 Applications: Eat Your Peas, Please 119 Review 123 Chapter Summary 123 x Chapter 4 Theories of Cognitive Development 127 Piaget’s Theory 130 View of Children’s Nature 130 Central Developmental Issues 131 The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to Age 2 Years) 133 The Preoperational Stage (Ages 2 to 7) 136 The Concrete Operations Stage (Ages 7 to 12) 139 The Formal Operations Stage (Age 12 and Beyond) 139 Piaget’s Legacy 140 Box 4.1 Applications: Educational Applications of Piaget’s Theory 141 Review 143 Information-Processing Theories 143 View of Children’s Nature 145 Central Developmental Issues 145 Box 4.2 Applications: Educational Applications of Information-Processing Theories 152 Review 154 Core-Knowledge Theories 154 View of Children’s Nature 154 Central Developmental Issues 156 Box 4.3 Applications: Educational Applications of Core-Knowledge Theories 158 Review 158 Sociocultural Theories 158 View of Children’s Nature 159 Central Developmental Issues 161 Box 4.4 Applications: Educational Applications of Sociocultural Theories 164 Review 164 Dynamic-Systems Theories 164 View of Children’s Nature 166 Central Development Issues 168 Box 4.5 Applications: Educational Applications of Dynamic-Systems Theories 170 Review 171 Chapter Summary 171 Chapter 5 Seeing, Thinking, and Doing in Infancy 175 Perception 177 Vision 178 Box 5.1 A Closer Look: Beauty and the Baby 180 Auditory Perception 185 Box 5.2 A Closer Look: Picture Perception 186 Taste and Smell 187 Touch 188 Intermodal Perception 188 Review 189 Motor Development 190 Reflexes 190 xi Motor Milestones 191 Current Views of Motor Development 192 Box 5.3 A Closer Look: “The Case of the Disappearing Reflex” 194 The Expanding World of the Infant 194 Box 5.4 Applications: A Recent Secular Change in Motor Development 196 Box 5.5 A Closer Look: “Gangway—I’m Coming Down” 197 Review 199 Learning 199 Habituation 200 Perceptual Learning 200 Statistical Learning 202 Classical Conditioning 202 Instrumental Conditioning 203 Observational Learning/Imitation 204 Review 205 Cognition 205 Object Knowledge 206 Physical Knowledge 207 Social Knowledge 208 Looking Ahead 211 Review 211 Chapter Summary 212 Chapter 6 Development of Language and Symbol Use 215 Language Development 217 The Components of Language 217 What Is Required for Language? 219 Box 6.1 Applications: Two Languages Are Better Than One 224 The Process of Language Acquisition 225 Box 6.2 Individual Differences: Variability in Language Development 234 Current Theoretical Issues in Language Development 246 Box 6.3 A Closer Look: “I Just Can’t Talk Without My Hands”: What Gestures Tell Us About Language 248 Review 251 Nonlinguistic Symbols and Development 252 Using Symbols as Information 252 Drawing 253 Review 255 Chapter Summary 256 Chapter 7 Conceptual Development 259 Understanding Who or What 261 Dividing Objects into Categories 262 Knowledge of Other People and Oneself 266 Box 7.1 Individual Differences: Children with Autism 270 xii Knowledge of Living Things 273 Box 7.2 Individual Differences: Imaginary Companions 273 Review 278 Understanding Where, When, Why, and How Many 279 Space 279 Time 283 Causality 285 Number 288 Box 7.3 A Closer Look: Magical Thinking and Fantasy 288 Review 293 Chapter Summary 294 Chapter 8 Intelligence and Academic Achievement 297 What Is Intelligence? 299 Intelligence as a Single Trait 299 Intelligence as a Few Basic Abilities 299 Intelligence as Numerous Processes 300 A Proposed Resolution 300 Review 301 Measuring Intelligence 301 The Contents of Intelligence Tests 302 The Intelligence Quotient (IQ) 304 Box 8.1 Individual Differences: Gifted Children 306 Review 307 IQ Scores as Predictors of Important Outcomes 307 Review 308 Genes, Environment, and the Development of Intelligence 308 Qualities of the Child 309 Influence of the Immediate Environment 310 Influence of Society 313 Box 8.2 Applications: A Highly Successful Early Intervention: The Carolina Abecedarian Project 318 Review 320 Alternative Perspectives on Intelligence 320 Review 322 Acquisition of Academic Skills: Reading, Writing, and Mathematics 323 Reading 323 Box 8.3 Individual Differences: Dyslexia 327 Writing 329 Mathematics 332 Box 8.4 Applications: Mathematical Disabilities 334 Review 336 Chapter Summary 337 xiii Chapter 9 Theories of Social Development 341 Psychoanalytic Theories 343 View of Children’s Nature 343 Central Developmental Issues 344 Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development 344 Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development 347 Current Perspectives 349 Review 350 Learning Theories 350 View of Children’s Nature 351 Central Developmental Issues 351 Watson’s Behaviorism 351 Skinner’s Operant Conditioning 352 Social Learning Theory 354 Box 9.1 A Closer Look: Bandura and Bobo 354 Current Perspectives 357 Review 357 Theories of Social Cognition 358 View of Children’s Nature 358 Central Developmental Issues 358 Selman’s Stage Theory of Role Taking 358 Dodge’s Information-Processing Theory of Social Problem Solving 359 Dweck’s Theory of Self-Attributions and Achievement Motivation 360 Current Perspectives 361 Review 362 Ecological Theories of Development 362 View of Children’s Nature 362 Central Developmental Issues 362 Ethological and Evolutionary Theories 363 The Bioecological Model 366 Box 9.2 Individual Differences: Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 370 Box 9.3 Applications: Preventing Child Maltreatment 372 Current Perspectives 377 Review 378 Chapter Summary 378 Chapter 10 Emotional Development 381 The Development of Emotions in Childhood 383 Theories on the Nature and Emergence of Emotion 384 The Emergence of Emotion in the Early Years and Childhood 385 Box 10.1 Individual Differences: Gender Differences in Adolescent Depression 393 Review 395 Regulation of Emotion 396 The Development of Emotional Regulation 396 The Relation of Emotional Regulation to Social Competence and Adjustment 398 Review 399 xiv Individual Differences in Emotion and Its Regulation 399 Temperament 400 Box 10.2 A Closer Look: Measurement of Temperament 404 Review 407 Children’s Emotional Development in the Family 407 Quality of the Child’s Relationships with Parents 408 Parental Socialization of Children’s Emotional Responding 408 Review 411 Culture and Children’s Emotional Development 411 Review 413 Children’s Understanding of Emotion 413 Identifying the Emotions of Others 414 Understanding the Causes and Dynamics of Emotion 415 Children’s Understanding of Real and False Emotions 416 Review 419 Chapter Summary 419 Chapter 11 Attachment to Others and Development of Self 423 The Caregiver–Child Attachment Relationship 425 Attachment Theory 426 Measurement of Attachment Security in Infancy 427 Box 11.1 Individual Differences: Parental Attachment Status 430 Cultural Variations in Attachment 431 Factors Associated with the Security of Children’s Attachment 432 Box 11.2 Applications: Interventions and Attachment 434 Does Security of Attachment Have Long-Term Effects? 434 Review 436 Conceptions of the Self 436 The Development of Conceptions of Self 437 Identity in Adolescence 443 Review 446 Ethnic Identity 446 Ethnic Identity in Childhood 447 Ethnic Identity in Adolescence 448 Review 449 Sexual Identity or Orientation 449 The Origins of Youths’ Sexual Identity 450 Sexual Identity in Sexual-Minority Youth 450 Review 454 Self-Esteem 454 Sources of Self-Esteem 454 Self-Esteem in Minority Children 457 Culture and Self-Esteem 459 Review 460 Chapter Summary 460 xv Chapter 12 The Family 463 The Nature and Functions of the Family 466 Functions of Families 466 Family Dynamics 466 Box 12.1 A Closer Look: Parent–Child Relationships in Adolescence 468 Review 468 The Influence of Parental Socialization 469 Parenting Styles and Practices 469 The Child as an Influence on Parenting 473 Socioeconomic Influences on Parenting 474 Box 12.2 A Closer Look: Homelessness 477 Review 478 Mothers, Fathers, and Siblings 478 Differences in Mothers’ and Fathers’ Interactions with Their Children 478 Sibling Relationships 479 Review 480 Changes in Families in the United States 481 Box 12.3 Individual Differences: Adolescents as Parents 482 Older Parents 483 Divorce 484 Stepparenting 489 Lesbian and Gay Parents 491 Review 492 Maternal Employment and Child Care 492 The Effects of Maternal Employment 493 The Effects of Child Care 494 Review 499 Chapter Summary 500 Chapter 13 Peer Relationships 503 What Is Special About Peer Relationships? 506 Friendships 507 Early Peer Interactions and Friendships 508 Developmental Changes in Friendship 509 The Functions of Friendships 511 Effects of Friendships on Psychological Functioning and Behavior over Time 514 Children’s Choice of Friends 516 Box 13.1 Individual Differences: Culture and Children’s Peer Experience 517 Review 518 Peers in Groups 518 The Nature of Young Children’s Groups 519 Cliques and Social Networks in Middle Childhood and Early Adolescence 519 Cliques and Social Networks in Adolescence 520 Boys and Girls in Cliques and Crowds 521 xvi Negative Influences of Cliques and Social Networks 521 Box 13.2 A Closer Look: Romantic Relationships with Peers 522 Review 523 Status in the Peer Group 523 Measurement of Peer Status 524 Characteristics Associated with Sociometric Status 524 Box 13.3 Applications: Fostering Children’s Peer Acceptance 528 Stability of Sociometric Status 529 Cross-Cultural Similarities and Differences in Factors Related to Peer Status 529 Peer Status as a Predictor of Risk 530 Review 533 The Role of Parents in Children’s Peer Relationships 534 Relations Between Attachment and Competence with Peers 534 Quality of Ongoing Parent–Child Interactions and Peer Relationships 535 Parental Beliefs and Behaviors 536 Gatekeeping, Coaching, and Modeling by Parents 536 Family Stress and Children’s Social Competence 537 Review 538 Chapter Summary 539 Chapter 14 Moral Development 543 Moral Judgment 545 Piaget’s Theory of Moral Judgment 546 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Judgment 548 Prosocial Moral Judgment 552 Domains of Social Judgment 554 Review 556 The Early Development of Conscience 556 Factors Affecting the Development of Conscience 557 Review 558 Prosocial Behavior 558 The Development of Prosocial Behavior 559 The Origins of Individual Differences in Prosocial Behavior 562 Box 14.1 A Closer Look: Cultural Contributions to Children’s Prosocial and Antisocial Tendencies 564 Box 14.2 Applications: School-Based Interventions for Promoting Prosocial Behavior 566 Review 567 Antisocial Behavior 567 The Development of Aggression and Other Antisocial Behaviors 567 Consistency of Aggressive and Antisocial Behavior 568 Box 14.3 A Closer Look: Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder 570 Characteristics of Aggressive-Antisocial Children and Adolescents 571 The Origins of Aggression 572 Box 14.4 Applications: The Fast Track Intervention 578 xvii Biology and Socialization: Their Joint Influence on Children’s Antisocial Behavior 579 Review 579 Chapter Summary 580 Chapter 15 Gender Development 583 Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Development 585 Biological Influences 586 Box 15.1 A Closer Look: Gender Identity: More than Socialization? 588 Cognitive and Motivational Influences 589 Box 15.2 A Closer Look: Gender Socialization at Home 594 Box 15.3 Applications: Where Are SpongeSally SquarePants and Curious Jane? 595 Cultural Influences 596 Review 597 Milestones in Gender Development 597 Infancy and Toddlerhood 598 Preschool Years 598 Middle Childhood 600 Adolescence 601 Gender Flexibility and Asymmetry 603 Review 604 Gender Comparisons 604 Physical Growth: Infancy through Adolescence 605 Cognitive Abilities and Academic Achievement 607 Personality and Social Behavior 613 Review 619 Chapter Summary 619 Chapter 16 Conclusions 623 Theme 1: Nature and Nurture: All Interactions, All the Time 624 Nature and Nurture Begin Interacting Before Birth 624 Infants’ Nature Elicits Nurture 625 Timing Matters 625 Nature Does Not Reveal Itself All at Once 626 Everything Influences Everything 627 Theme 2: Children Play Active Roles in Their Own Development 628 Self-Initiated Activity 628 Active Interpretation of Experience 629 Self-Regulation 630 Eliciting Reactions from Other People 630 Theme 3: Development Is Both Continuous and Discontinuous 631 Continuity/Discontinuity of Individual Differences 631 Continuity/Discontinuity of Overall Development: The Question of Stages 632 xviii Theme 4: Mechanisms of Developmental Change 634 Biological Change Mechanisms 635 Behavioral Change Mechanisms 636 Cognitive Change Mechanisms 638 Change Mechanisms Work Together 639 Theme 5: The Sociocultural Context Shapes Development 640 Growing Up in Societies with Different Values 640 Growing Up in Different Times and Places 641 Growing Up in Different Circumstances Within a Society 642 Theme 6: Individual Differences 643 Breadth of Individual Differences at a Given Time 644 Stability over Time 644 Predicting Future Individual Differences on Other Dimensions 645 Determinants of Individual Differences 645 Theme 7: Child-Development Research Can Improve Children’s Lives 646 Implications for Parenting 646 Implications for Education 648 Implications for Helping Children at Risk 649 Improving Social Policy 651 Glossary G-1 References R-1 Name Index NI-1 Subject Index SI-1