METIN HEPER NUR BILGE CRISS TURKEY THIRD EDITION HISTORICAL DICTIONARIES OF EUROPE Jon Woronoff, Series Editor 1. Portugal , by Douglas L. Wheeler. 1993. Out of print. See no. 40. 2. Turkey , by Metin Heper. 1994. Out of print. See no. 38. 3. Poland , by George Sanford and Adriana Gozdecka-Sanford. 1994. Out of print. See no. 41. 4. Germany , by Wayne C. Thompson, Susan L. Thompson, and Juliet S. Thompson. 1994. 5. Greece , by Thanos M. Veremis and Mark Dragoumis. 1995. 6. Cyprus , by Stavros Panteli. 1995. 7. Sweden , by Irene Scobbie. 1995. Out of print. See no. 48. 8. Finland , by George Maude. 1995. Out of print. See no. 49. 9. Croatia , by Robert Stallaerts and Jeannine Laurens. 1995. Out of print. See no. 39. 10. Malta , by Warren G. Berg. 1995. 11. Spain , by Angel Smith. 1996. Out of print. See no. 65. 12. Albania , by Raymond Hutchings. 1996. Out of print. See no. 42. 13. Slovenia , by Leopoldina Plut-Pregelj and Carole Rogel. 1996. Out of print. See no. 56. 14. Luxembourg , by Harry C. Barteau. 1996. 15. Romania , by Kurt W. Treptow and Marcel Popa. 1996. 16. Bulgaria , by Raymond Detrez. 1997. Out of print. See no. 46. 17. United Kingdom: Volume 1, England and the United Kingdom; Vol- ume 2, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland , by Kenneth J. Pan- ton and Keith A. Cowlard. 1997, 1998. 18. Hungary , by Steven Béla Várdy. 1997. 19. Latvia , by Andrejs Plakans. 1997. 20. Ireland , by Colin Thomas and Avril Thomas. 1997. 21. Lithuania , by Saulius Suziedelis. 1997. 22. Macedonia , by Valentina Georgieva and Sasha Konechni. 1998. 23. The Czech State , by Jiri Hochman. 1998. 24. Iceland , by Gu∂mundur Hálfdanarson. 1997. Out of print. See no. 66. 25. Bosnia and Herzegovina , by Ante Cuvalo. 1997. Out of print. See no. 57. 26. Russia , by Boris Raymond and Paul Duffy. 1998. 27. Gypsies (Romanies) , by Donald Kenrick. 1998. Out of print. 28. Belarus , by Jan Zaprudnik. 1998. 29. Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , by Zeljan Suster. 1999. 30. France , by Gino Raymond. 1998. Out of print. See no. 64. 31. Slovakia , by Stanislav J. Kirschbaum. 1998. Out of print. See no. 47. 32. Netherlands , by Arend H. Huussen Jr. 1998. Out of print. See no. 55. 33. Denmark , by Alastair H. Thomas and Stewart P. Oakley. 1998. Out of print. See no. 63. 34. Modern Italy , by Mark F. Gilbert and K. Robert Nilsson. 1998. Out of print. See no. 58. 35. Belgium , by Robert Stallaerts. 1999. 36. Austria , by Paula Sutter Fichtner. 1999. 37. Republic of Moldova , by Andrei Brezianu. 2000. Out of print. See no. 52. 38. Turkey, 2nd edition , by Metin Heper. 2002. Out of print. See No. 67. 39. Republic of Croatia, 2nd edition , by Robert Stallaerts. 2003. 40. Portugal, 2nd edition , by Douglas L. Wheeler. 2002. 41. Poland, 2nd edition , by George Sanford. 2003. 42. Albania, New edition , by Robert Elsie. 2004. 43. Estonia , by Toivo Miljan. 2004. 44. Kosova , by Robert Elsie. 2004. 45. Ukraine , by Zenon E. Kohut, Bohdan Y. Nebesio, and Myroslav Yurkevich. 2005. 46. Bulgaria, 2nd edition , by Raymond Detrez. 2006. 47. Slovakia, 2nd edition , by Stanislav J. Kirschbaum. 2006. 48. Sweden, 2nd edition , by Irene Scobbie. 2006. 49. Finland, 2nd edition , by George Maude. 2007. 50. Georgia , by Alexander Mikaberidze. 2007. 51. Belgium, 2nd edition , by Robert Stallaerts. 2007. 52. Moldova, 2nd edition , by Andrei Brezianu and Vlad Spânu. 2007. 53. Switzerland , by Leo Schelbert. 2007. 54. Contemporary Germany , by Derek Lewis with Ulrike Zitzlsperger. 2007. 55. Netherlands, 2nd edition , by Joop W. Koopmans and Arend H. Hu- ussen Jr. 2007. 56. Slovenia, 2nd edition , by Leopoldina Plut-Pregelj and Carole Ro- gel. 2007. 57. Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2nd edition , by Ante Č uvalo. 2007. 58. Modern Italy, 2nd edition , by Mark F. Gilbert and K. Robert Nils- son. 2007. 59. Belarus, 2nd edition , by Vitali Silitski and Jan Zaprudnik. 2007. 60. Latvia, 2nd edition , by Andrejs Plakans. 2008. 61. Contemporary United Kingdom , by Kenneth J. Panton and Keith A. Cowlard. 2008. 62. Norway , by Jan Sjåvik. 2008. 63. Denmark, 2nd edition , by Alastair H. Thomas. 2009. 64. France, 2nd edition , by Gino Raymond. 2008. 65. Spain, 2nd edition , by Angel Smith. 2008. 66. Iceland, 2nd edition , by Gu∂munder Hálfdanarson. 2009. 67. Turkey, 3rd edition , by Metin Heper and Nur Bilge Criss. 2009. Historical Dictionary of Turkey Third Edition Metin Heper Nur Bilge Criss Historical Dictionaries of Europe, No. 67 The Scarecrow Press, Inc. Lanham, Maryland • Toronto • Plymouth, UK 2009 SCARECROW PRESS, INC. Published in the United States of America by Scarecrow Press, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706 www.scarecrowpress.com Estover Road Plymouth PL6 7PY United Kingdom Copyright © 2009 by Metin Heper and Nur Bilge Criss All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Heper, Metin. Historical dictionary of Turkey / Metin Heper. — 3rd ed. p. cm. — (Historical dictionaries of Europe ; no. 67) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN-13: 978-0-8108-6065-0 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8108-6065-1 (cloth : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-8108-6281-4 (ebook) ISBN-10: 0-8108-6281-6 (ebook) 1. Turkey–History–Dictionaries. I. Criss, Bilge. II. Title. DR436.H47 2009 956.1003–dc22 2008031828 ∞ ™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992. Manufactured in the United States of America. Contents vii Editor’s Foreword Jon Woronoff ix Maps xi Acknowledgments xix Reader’s Note xxi Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiii Chronology xxix Introduction lxvii THE DICTIONARY 1 Appendixes A Geography and Resources 341 B Ottoman Sultans and Turkish Presidents and Prime Ministers 343 C General Elections in the Republican Period (1923 to the Present) 349 D Basic Economic Indicators 355 E Basic Social Indicators 357 Bibliography 359 About the Authors 479 Editor’s Foreword ix Turkey, not so long ago dismissed as the “end” of Europe, has increas- ingly become a center of regional affairs. After decades as a bastion against the Soviet Union, it can finally deal normally with Eastern Eu- ropean countries and the successor states of the Soviet Union. Some of these areas were previously part of the Ottoman-Turkish sphere; several still share the similar religion and historic roots. Contacts with the Mid- dle East are much closer now, facilitated by a common religion and mu- tual economic interests. Yet, while restoring and intensifying these rela- tions, Turkey has never turned away from the West. To the contrary, since the 1960s, Turkey has been seeking closer economic and political links and aspiring to membership in the European Union while remain- ing an ally of the United States; however, to understand today’s Turkey, it is essential to look further back in history, particularly to the creation of the modern secular state by Atatürk and then yet further to its origins of the Ottoman Empire in the 14th century. This span of seven centuries readily explains the importance of “his- torical” in the book’s title, since history—recent and much older— looms large in what is taking place today and can hardly be understood without sufficient background. The chronology overviews just what did happen and when. The introduction helpfully places the present situa- tion in the broader context of the past, while also looking into the fu- ture. The dictionary, with both new and revised entries, contains de- scriptions of significant individuals (sultans and prime ministers, soldiers and civilians, educators and artists); major places and institu- tions; and basic issues in such fields as politics, economics, education, religion, and culture. Finally, the bibliography surveys the literature on Turkey and directs readers to key works on a variety of topics. This is already the third edition of Historical Dictionary of Turkey The first two editions were written by Metin Heper, who wrote part of the third as well, this time with the collaboration of Nur Bilge Criss. Both were born and educated in Turkey (and abroad), and both teach at Bilkent University in Ankara. Dr. Heper is professor of political sci- ence; director of the Center for Turkish Politics and History; dean of the Faculty of Economics, Administrative, and Social Sciences; and a founding member of the Turkish Academy of Sciences. His specializa- tion is politics and democracy, on which he is a well-known authority, with the list of books he has written or coedited constantly growing. Dr. Criss is assistant professor at Bilkent University in Ankara and a mem- ber of the editorial boards of numerous major journals. She, too, has a growing list of articles and chapters and a book to her credit, most on Turkey’s foreign relations and security. Between the two, they have not only expanded and updated the previous edition but have also rounded out the coverage to new and important areas. Thanks to them, it is even easier to learn about a country that has worked hard to win its place in the world and deserves to be much more than an afterthought. Jon Woronoff Series Editor x • EDITOR’S FOREWORD Acknowledgments xix Map “Turkey, Europe, Asia, and Africa/Turkey in Scale” has been adopted from Paul M. Pitman III, ed. Turkey: A Country Study , Wash- ington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1988, p. xv; maps “The Rise of the Ottoman Empire, 1280–1683” and “Decline of the Ottoman Empire and Rise of the Turkish Republic, 1683–1975” from Stanford J. Shaw and Ezel Kural Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey , Volume II, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977, pp. xxii–xxiii and xxxiv–xxxv, respectively; and map “Turkey” from John Freely, Turkey , London: Collins (now HarperCollins), 1986, pp. 13–14. Permissions given are gratefully acknowledged.