IN T R O D U CTIO N When a n in d iv id u a l e n t e r s t h e p r e s e n c e of o th e r s , th e y com m only s e e k to a c q u i r e inform atio n a b o u t him or to bring in to p la y inform ation a b o u t him a l r e a d y p o s s e s s e d . T h e y w ill be i n t e r e s t e d in h i s g e n e r a l s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s , h is c o n c e p t io n o f s e l f , h i s a t t i t u d e tow ard them , h i s c o m p e te n c e , h i s tr u s t w o r t h in e s s , e t c . A lthough so m e of th is in form ation s e e m s to be s o u g h t a lm o st a s a n end in i t s e l f , th e re a r e u s u a lly q u ite p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s for a c q u ir in g it. Inform ation a b o u t th e in d iv id u a l h e l p s to d e f in e th e s i t u a t i o n , e n a b l i n g o th e rs to know in ad v a n c e w hat he w ill e x p e c t of them and w h a t th e y may e x p e c t of him. Inform ed in t h e s e w a y s , th e o t h e r s w ill know how b e s t to a c t in o r d e r to c a ll forth a d e s ir e d r e s p o n s e from him. F o r t h o s e p r e s e n t , many s o u r c e s of in fo rm atio n bec om e a c c e s s i b l e an d many c a r r i e r s (or ' s i g n - v e h i c l e s ’) bec om e a v a i l a b l e for c o n v e y in g t h i s inform ation. If u n a c q u a i n te d w ith th e in d iv id u a l, o b s e r v e r s c a n g le a n c l u e s from h i s c o n d u c t an d a p p e a r a n c e w h ich a llo w them to a pp ly th e ir p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e with i n d i v i d u a l s roughly s im ila r to th e o n e befo re them or, more im portant, to a p p ly u n t e s t e d s t e r e o t y p e s to him. T h e y c a n a l s o a s s u m e from p a s t e x p e r ie n c e th a t only i n d i v i d u a l s o f a p a r ti c u la r kind a r e l ik e ly to be found in a g iv e n s o c i a l s e ttin g . T h ey c a n r e ly o n w h a t th e in d iv id u a l s a y s ab o u t h i m s e l f or on do c u m e n tary e v i d e n c e he p r o v id e s a s to who and w hat he i s . If ttiey know, or know of, th e in d iv id u a l by v irtu e of e x p e r ie n c e prior to t h e in te r a c t io n , th e y c a n r e ly on a s s u m p t i o n s a s to th e p e r s i s t e n c e an d g e n e r a lit y o f p s y c h o lo g ic a l t r a i t s a s a m e a n s of p r e d ic tin g h i s p r e s e n t an d future beh a v io u r. H o w ev er, d u rin g th e p e r io d in w hich th e in d iv id u a l i s in th e im m e d ia te p r e s e n c e of t h e o th e r s , few e v e n t s may o c c u r w hich d i r e c t l y p ro v id e the o t h e r s w ith the c o n c l u s i v e in fo n n a tio n they will n e e d if th e y a r e to d i r e c t w is e ly th e ir own a c t i v i t y . Many c r u c ia l f a c t s l i e b e yond th e tim e and p l a c e of i n te r a c t io n or l i e c o n c e a l e d w ithin it. For- ex a m p le , th e ' t r u e ’ o r ’ r e a l ’ a t t i tu d e s , b e l ie f s , a n d e m o tio n s o f th e in d iv id u a l c a n be a s c e r t a i n e d o n ly in d ir e c tly , through h i s a v o w a l s or through what 1 a p p e a r s t o be in v o lu n ta ry e x p r e s s i v e behaviour. S im ilarly, if th e in d iv id u a l o f f e r s t h e o t h e r s a p ro d u c t or s e r v ic e , they w ill o f te n find th a t d u rin g the in te r a c t io n th e re will be no tim e an d p l a c e im m e d ia te ly a v a i l a b l e for e a t i n g th e pudd in g t h a t the p roof c a n b e found in. T h e y will b e fo rc ed to a c c e p t s o m e e v e n t s a s c o n v e n tio n a l or n a tu ra l s i g n s of s o m e th in g not d i r e c t l y a v a i l a b l e to th e s e n s e s . In I c h h e i s e r ’ s t e r m s 1, t h e in d i vidu al w ill h a v e to a c t so th a t h e in te n tio n a lly or u n in te n tio n a l ly expresses h im s e lf , and th e o t h e r s will in turn h a v e to be impressed in so m e way by him. We find, th e n , th a t w hen th e ind iv id u al i s in t h e im m e d ia te p r e s e n c e o f o th e rs , h is a c t i v i t y w ill h a v e a p r o m isso r y c h a r a c te r. T h e o t h e r s a r e l i k e l y to find th a t th e y m u st a c c e p t the in d iv id u a l o n f a ith , offe rin g him a ju st retu rn w h ile h e i s p re s e n t before them in e x c h a n g e for s o m e th in g w h o s e tru e v a lu e w ill not be e s t a b l i s h e d u n til afte r h e h a s left th e ir p r e s e n c e . (Of c o u r s e , th e o t h e r s a l s o liv e by in f e r e n c e in th e ir d e a l i n g s with th e p h y s i c a l world, but it i s only in th e world of s o c i a l i n te r a c t io n th a t th e o b j e c t s ab o u t which th e y m ak e i n f e r e n c e s will p u r p o s e ly f a c i l i t a t e a n d h inde r t h i s in f e r e n tia l p r o c e s s .) T h e s e c u r i t y th a t they j u s t i f i a b l y feel in m aking in f e r e n c e s ab o u t th e in d iv id u a l w ill vary, of c o u r s e , d e p e n d in g on suc h f a c t o r s a s th e am ount of p r e v io u s inform ation th e y p o s s e s s a b o u t him, but no am ount of s u c h p a s t e v i d e n c e c a n e n t ir e ly o b v i a t e th e n e c e s s i t y of a c tin g on th e b a s i s o f i n f e r e n c e s . L e t u s now tu rn from t h e o t h e r s to th e p o in t of v iew of the in d iv id u a l who p r e s e n t s h im s e lf before them . H e may w is h them to th in k highly of him, or t o think th a t he th i n k s h ighly of them, or to p e r c e iv e how in f a c t h e f e e ls toward them, or to o b ta in no c le a r - c u t i m p r e s s i o n ; he may w ish to e n s u r e s u f f i c ie n t harmony s o th a t the i n te r a c t io n c a n be s u s t a i n e d , or to d efrau d , g e t rid of, c o n f u s e , m is le a d , a n t a g o n iz e , or in s u lt them . R e g a r d l e s s o f th e p a r ti c u la r o b j e c t i v e w hich th e in d iv id u al h a s in mind and of h i s m otive for h a v in g t h i s o b j e c t i v e , it will be in h i s i n t e r e s t s to c o n tro l the c o n d u c t of th e o th e r s , e s p e c i a l l y th e ir r e s p o n s i v e t r e a tm e n t of him. 2 T h i s control is a c h ie v e d la rg e ly by in flu e n c in g t h e d e f in itio n of th e s i t u a t i o n w hich the o th e r s com e to fo rm u late , and h e c a n in f lu e n c e t h i s d e f in itio n by e x p r e s s i n g h im s e lf in s u c h a way a s to g iv e them th e kind o f im p r e s s io n ' G u s t a v I c h e i s e r , ‘ M i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s in Human R e l a t i o n s ' , S u p plem en t to T h e A m e r ic a n J o u rn a l o f S o c io lo g y , LV, (S e ptem b er, 1949) p p . 6- 7. a i ! e r e 1 o w e m uch t o an u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r by Tom B u r n s of t h e U n i v e r s i t y of E din burgh, w h ere the argum en t i s p r e s e n t e d r h at in a l l i n t e r a c t i o n a b a s i c u n d e r ly in g th em e i s th e d e s i r e of e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t to g u i d e a n d co n tro l th e r e s p o n s e m ad e by the o t h e r s p r e s e n t . 2 th a t w ill l e a d them to a c t v o lu n ta r ily in a c c o r d a n c e with h i s ow n pla n . T h u s , w hen an i n d iv i d u a l a p p e a r s in th e p r e s e n c e of o t h e r s , t h e r e w ill u s u a l l y be so m e r e a s o n for him to m o b iliz e h i s a c t i v i t y s o th a t it w ill c o n v e y a n im p r e s s io n to o t h e r s w hich it i s in h i s i n t e r e s t s to c o n v e y . I h a v e s a i d th a t when an in d iv id u a l a p p e a r s before o t h e r s h i s a c t i o n s w ill in f lu e n c e th e d e f in itio n of th e s it u a ti o n w hich th e y c o m e to h a v e . S o m etim es th e in d iv id u a l will a c t in a th o roughly c a l c u l a t i n g manner, e x p r e s s i n g h im s e lf in a given way s o le ly in o rd e r to giv e th e kind of im p r e s s io n to o t h e r s th a t i s lik e ly to e v o k e from them a s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s e he is c o n c e r n ed to o b ta in . Som etim es th e in d iv id u a l w ill be c a l c u l a t i n g in h i s a c t i v i t y but be r e l a t i v e l y u n a w a re t h a t t h i s is th e c a s e . Som etim es he w ill in te n tio n a lly an d c o n s c i o u s l y e x p r e s s him s e l f in a p a r ti c u la r way, but c h i e f ly b e c a u s e the tr a d itio n of h is group or s o c i a l s t a t u s r e q u ir e t h is kind of e x p r e s s i o n an d not b e c a u s e o f an y p a r ti c u la r r e s p o n s e (o th e r th a n v ag ue a c c e p t a n c e or approval) th a t i s l ik e ly to be e v o k e d from th o s e im p r e s s e d by t h e e x p r e s s i o n . S om etim es the tr a d i tio n s o f an i n d iv i d u a l’s ro le w ill l e a d him to g iv e a w e ll-d e s ig n e d im p r e s s ion of a p a r t i c u l a r kind and y e t he may be n e i th e r c o n s c i o u s l y nor u n c o n s c io u s l y d i s p o s e d to c r e a t e s u c h an im p re ssio n . T h e o t h e r s , in th e ir turn, may be s u i t a b l y im p r e s s e d by th e in d iv i d u a l ’s e ff o rts to c o n v e y s o m e th in g , or may s c e p t i c a l l y ex am ine a s p e c t s of h i s a c t i v i t y o f w h o se s i g n i f i c a n c e he i s not a w a re , o r may m is u n d e r s ta n d th e s i t u a t i o n and com e to c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t are w arra n te d n e ith e r by th e in d iv i d u a l’s in te n t nor by the f a c t s . In an y c a s e , in s o far a s the o t h e r s a c t as i f th e in d iv i d ual had co n v e y e d a p a r t i c u l a r im p r e s s io n , we may ta k e a f u n c t ional or p r a g m a tic view an d s a y t h a t th e in d iv id u a l h a s ’ e f f e c t i v e l y ’ p r o je c te d a g ive n d e f in i tio n of th e s i t u a t i o n and ' e f f e c t i v e l y ’ f o s te r e d th e u n d e r s ta n d in g th a t a g iv e n s t a t e o f a f f a ir s o b ta in s . When w e a llo w th a t t h e in d iv id u a l p r o j e c t s a d e f in itio n o f the s i t u a ti o n w hen he a p p e a r s before o th e rs , w e must a l s o s e e chat th e o th e r s , how ever p a s s i v e their ro le may s e e m to be, will t h e m s e l v e s e f f e c t i v e l y p r o j e c t a d e f in itio n of the s i t u a t i o n by v irtu e o f th e ir r e s p o n s e to t h e in d iv id u a l and by virtu e of any l i n e s of a c tio n th e y i n i t i a t e to him. O rd in arily we find th a t th e d e f in i tio n s of th e s i t u a t i o n p r o je c te d by th e s e v e r a l d iffe ren t p a r t i c i p a n t s are s u f f i c i e n t l y a ttu n e d to o n e a n o th e r s o t h a t open c o n t r a d ic t io n will not occ u r. I do not mean th a t th e re will be th e kind of c o n s e n s u s th a t a r i s e s w hen e a c h in d iv id u a l p r e s e n t c a n d id ly e x p r e s s e s w hat he r e a l l y f e e l s an d h o n e s tly a g r e e s 3 with th e e x p r e s s e d f e e l i n g s of th e o t h e r s p r e s e n t. T h i s kind o f harm ony i s an o p ti m i s t i c id e a l an d in a n y c a s e n o t n e c e s s a r y for th e sm ooth w orking of s o c i e t y . R a the r, e a c h p a r ti c ip a n t i s e x p e c t e d to s u p p r e s s h i s im m e d ia te h e a r t f e l t f e e lin g s , c o n v e y in g a view of the s i t u a t i o n w hich he f e e l s th e o t h e r s w ill be a b l e to find a t l e a s t te m p o rarily a c c e p t a b l e . T h e m a in te n a n c e o f t h i s s u r f a c e of ag re em e n t, th is v e n e e r of c o n s e n s u s , i s f a c i l i t a t e d by e a c h p a r t i c i p a n t c o n c e a l i n g h i s own w a n ts b e h in d s t a t e m e n t s w hich a s s e r t v a l u e s to w hich ev e ry o n e p r e s e n t is l i k e l y to g iv e l i p - s e r v i c e . F u rth e r, th e r e i s u s u a lly a k in d of d iv is io n of d e f in itio n a l la b o u r. E ac h p a r ti c ip a n t i s a l lo w e d to e s t a b l i s h th e t e n t a t i v e o f f ic ia l ru lin g r e g a r d in g m a tte rs w hich a r e v ita l to him b a t not im m e d ia te ly im portant to o th e rs , e .g ., th e r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s and j u s t i f i c a t i o n s by w hich he a c c o u n t s for h i s p a s t a c t i v i t y ; in e x c h a n g e for t h i s c o u r t e s y h e r e m a in s s i l e n t or non-com m ittal on m a tte r s im p o rta n t to o th e r s but not im m e d ia te ly im p ortant to him. We h a v e th e n a kind of i n t e r a c t i o n a l modus vivendi. T o g e t h e r t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s c o n t r i b u te to a s i n g l e o v e ra ll d e f in i tio n o f th e s i t u a t i o n w hich in v o lv e s n o t s o much a r e a l a g re e m e n t a s to w hat e x i s t s but r a th e r a r e a l ag r e e m e n t a s to w hose c l a i m s c o n c e r n in g what i s s u e s w ill b e tem porarily honoured. R e a l a g r e e m e n t will a l s o e x i s t c o n c e m - the d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a v o id in g an o pen c o n f li c t o f d e f i n i t i o n s of the s i t u a t i o n . 1 L e t u s refer to t h is le v e l of a g re e m e n t a s a ' w o r k i n g c o n s e n s u s ’. It i s to be u n d e r s to o d t h a t t h e w orking c o n s e n s u s e s t a b l i s h e d in o n e i n te r a c t io n s e t t i n g will be q u i t e d if fe r e n t in c o n t e n t from th e w orking c o n s e n s u s e s t a b l i s h e d in a d iffe ren t ty p e o f s e ttin g . T h u s , b e tw e e n two f r ie n d s a t lu n c h , a r e c ip ro c a l show of a f f e c tio n , r e s p e c t , and c o n c e r n for t h e o th e r i s m a in ta in e d . In s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s , on t h e o th e r hand, th e s p e c i a l i s t o f te n m a i n t a i n s a n im a g e of d i s i n t e r e s t e d in v o lv e - ment in th e problem o f t h e c l i e n t , w hile t h e c l i e n t r e s p o n d s with a show of r e s p e c t for th e c o m p e t e n c e and in te g r ity of t h e s p e c i a l i s t . R e g a r d l e s s o f s u c h d i f f e r e n c e s in c o n t e n t, h o w ev e r, t h e g en e ral form of t h e s e w orking a r r a n g e m e n ts i s th e sam e. In n o tin g th e te n d e n c y for a p a r t i c i p a n t to a c c e p t th e d e f in i t i o n a l c l a i m s m a d e by t h e o t h e r s p r e s e n t , we c a n a p p r e c i a t e the c r u c ia l im p o r ta n c e of t h e -information t h a t th e in d iv id u a l initially p o s s e s s e s or a c q u i r e s c o n c e r n in g h i s fellow p a r t i c i 1 An in t e r a c t i o n c a n be p u r p o s e l y s e t up a s a tim e a n d p l a c e for v o i c i n g d i f f e r e n c e s in o p in io n , but in s u c h c a s e s p a r t i c i p a n t s m ust be c a r e f u l to a g r e e no t to d i s a g r e e o n t h e proper t o n e o f v o i c c , v o c a b u l a r y , a n d d e g r e e o f s e r i o u s n e s s in w h i c h a l l a r g u m e n t s a r e to b e p h r a s e d , an d up on t h e m u tu al r e s p e c t w h ic h d i s a g r e e i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s m u s t c a r e f u l ly c o n t i n u e to e x p r e s s to w a r d o n e a n o t h e r . T h i s d e b a t e r s ' or a c a d e m i c d ef i n i ti o n of th e s i t u a t i o n may a l s o be s u d d e n l y a n d j u d i c i o u s l y in v o k e d a s a way of t r a n s l a t i n g a s e r i o u s c o n f l i c t o f v i e w s into o ne t h a t c a n be h a n d l e d w i th in a framework a c c e p ta b le to all p re se n t. 4 p a n t s , for it i s o n th e b a s i s o f t h i s in i t i a l in fo rm ation th a t t h e in d i v i d u a l s t a r t s to d e f in e t h e s i t u a t i o n and s t a r t s to build up l i n e s o f r e s p o n s i v e a c t i o n . T h e i n d i v i d u a l ’s in it ia l p r o je c tio n c o m m its him to w h a t h e i s p r o p o s i n g to be a n d r e q u i r e s him to drop a ll p r e t e n c e s of b e in g o th e r th in g s . ■ A s t h e i n te r a c t io n am ong th e p a r t i c i p a n t s p r o g r e s s e s , a d d i t i o n s a n d m o d if ic a ti o n s i n t h i s in i t i a l in fo rm atio n al s t a t e w ill of c o u r s e o c c u r, -but i t i s e s s e n t i a l th a t t h e s e l a t e r d e v e lo p m e n ts be r e l a t e d withouc c o n tr a d i c t i o n to, and even b u ilt up from, t h e i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n s ta k e n by t h e s e v e r a l p a r t i c i p a n t s . It would seem th a t a n in d iv id u a l c a n more e a s i l y m a k e a c h o i c e a s to w hat l i n e of tre a tm e n t to dem and from an d e x te n d to th e o th e r s p r e s e n t a t th e b e g in n in g o f a n e n c o u n te r th a n h e c a n a l te r t h e l i n e of tr e a tm e n t t h a t i s b e in g p u r s u e d o n c e t h e in t e r a c t i o n i s u n derw ay. In e v e r y d a y life , of c o u r s e , t h e r e i s a c l e a r u n d e r s ta n d in g th a t f irs t i m p r e s s i o n s a r e im portan t. T h u s , t h e work a d j u s tm e n t o f t h o s e in s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s will o fte n h in g e upon a c a p a c i t y to s e i z e and hold t h e i n i t i a t i v e in t h e s e r v i c e r e la tio n , a c a p a c i t y th a t w ill r e q u ir e s u b t l e a g g r e s s i v e n e s s o n th e p a rt of t h e s e r v e r w hen h e i s of lo w e r s o c io - e c o n o m ic s t a t u s th a n h is c l ie n t . W. F. Whyte s u g g e s t s th e w a i t r e s s a s a n e x a m p le : T h e firs c p o i n t t h a t s t a n d s o u t i s t h a t t h e w a i t r e s s who b e a r s up u n d e r p r e s s u r e d o e s n o t s im p ly r e s p o n d ro her c u s t o m e r s . S h e a c t s with s o m e s k i l l to c o n tr o l t h e i r b e h a v i o u r . ] T h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n t o a s k when w e l o o k a t t h e c u s t o m e r r e l a t i o n s h i p i s , “ D o e s t h e w a i t r e s s g e t t h e jump o n t h e c u s t o m e r , o r d o e s t h e c u s t o m e r g e t t h e jump on t h e w a i t r e s s ? ' 1 T h e s k ille d w a itr e s s r e a l i z e s the cru cial nature o f th is q u es tio n . . . . T h e s k i l l e d w a i t r e s s t a c k l e s t h e c u s t o m e r w ith c o n f i d e n c e and w ith o u t h e s i t a t i o n . Fo r e x a m p l e , s h e may find t h a t a n e w c u s t o m e r h a s s e a t e d h i m s e l f b efo re s h e c o u l d c l e a r off t h e d irty d i s h e s a n d c h a n g e rhe cloth. He i s now l e a n i n g on t h e t a b l e s t u d y i n g t h e m enu . She greets h im , s a y s , “ May I c h a n g e th e co v e r , p l e a s e and, w ith o u t w a itin g for an a n s w e r , t a k e s h i s m e n u a w a y from him s o t h a t he m o v e s b ack from t h e t a b l e , a n d s h e g o e s a b o u t h er work. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , i s h a n d l e d p o lite ly but firmly, a n d t h e r e i s n e v e r a n y q u e s t i o n a s to who i s in c h a r g e . 1 When t h e i n t e r a c t i o n th a t i s i n i t i a t e d by " f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n s ” i s i t s e l f m e re ly t h e in it ia l i n t e r a c t i o n in a n e x t e n d e d s e r i e s o f i n t e r a c t i o n s in v o lv in g t h e s a m e p a r t i c i p a n t s , we s p e a k of ' 'g e t t i n g o ff on t h e right f o o t ” a n d feel th a t it i s c r u c ia l th a t we do so . T h u s , o n e l e a r n s th a t s o m e t e a c h e r s t a k e t h e follow ing v iew : You c a n ' t e v e r ler th e m g e t t h e u p p e r h and on y ou o r y o u 'r e through. So I s ta rt out tough. T h e f i r s t day I g e t a new c l a s s in, I l e t them know w h o ’s b o s s . . . . Y ou 'v e go t to s t a r t oil t ou gh , t h e n y o u c a n e a s e u p a s y ou go a l o n g . If y o u s t a r t o u t e a s y - g o i n g , w h e n y ou t r y to g e t t o ug h, t h e y ’ll j u s t l o o k a t y o u a nd l a u g h . 2 1 W. F . Whyte, 11 When Workers an d C u s t o m e r s M e e t , ” C h a p . VII, In d u stry a m i S o c ie ty , e d . W . F . Whyte (N ew Y o r k : M cGraw-H ill, 1946), pp. 132-133- ? T e a c h e r i n t e r v ie w q u o te d by H ow ard S . B e ck er, " S o c i a l C l a s s V a r i a t i o n s in r h e T e a c h e r - P u p i l R e l a t i o n s h i p , " Journal o f E d u c a tio n a l S o c io lo g y , XXV, 459. 5 S im ilarly, a t t e n d a n t s ih m ental i n s t i t u t i o n s may feel th a t if t h e new p a t i e n t i s s h a rp ly put in h i s p l a c e th e f irs t day on th e ward a n d m a d e to s e e who i s b o s s , much future d iffic u lty w ill be p r e v e n te d . 1 G iv en t h e fac t th a t th e in d iv id u a l e f f e c tiv e ly p r o j e c t s a d e fin itio n o f t h e s it u a ti o n when h e e n t e r s th e p r e s e n c e of o th e r s , w e c a n a s s u m e th a t e v e n t s may o c c u r within th e in te r a c t i o n w hich c o n t r a d ic t , d is c r e d it, o r o th e r w is e throw doubt upon t h i s p ro je c tio n . When t h e s e d i s r u p tiv e e v e n t s o cc u r, th e in te r a c t io n i t s e l f may com e to a c o n f u s e d and e m b a r ra s s e d h a lt. Some o f t h e a s s u m p tio n s upon which the r e s p o n s e s of the p a r t i c i p a n t s h ad b e e n p r e d ic a te d becom e u n te n a b le , and th e p a r t i c i p a n t s find t h e m s e l v e s lo d g e d in a n in te r a c t io n for which th e s i t u a t i o n h a s been wrongly d e fin e d and i s now no lo n g e r de fined. At s u c h m om ents th e in d iv id u a l w h o s e p r e s e n t a t i o n h a s b ee n d is c r e d ite d may feel a s h a m e d w hile th e o t h e r s p r e s e n t may f e e l h o s t i l e , and all th e p a r t i c i p a n t s may co m e t o feel ill at e a s e , n o n p lu s s e d , our of c o u n te n a n c e , e m b a r ra s s e d , e x p e r ie n c in g th e kind of an o m ie th a t i s g e n e ra te d w hen th e m inute social s y s t e m o f f a c e - to - f a c e in te r a c tio n b r e a k s down. In s t r e s s i n g t h e fact th a t th e in it ia l d e fin itio n of the s i t u a tio n p r o je c te d by a n in d iv id u al t e n d s to p ro v id e a p la n for th e c o - o p e ra tiv e a c tiv i ty th a t f o llo w s —in s t r e s s i n g t h i s a c tio n po in t o f v ie w —we m u st n o t overlook th e c r u c ia l fac t th a t any pro j e c t e d d e f in itio n o f th e s i t u a ti o n a l s o h a s a d i s t i n c t i v e moral c h a r a c t e r . It i s t h i s moral c h a r a c t e r of p r o je c tio n s t h a t will c h i e f ly c o n c e r n u s in t h i s report. S o cie ty is o r g a n iz e d on th e p r in c i p le th a t any in d iv id u a l who p o s s e s s e s c e r ta in s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a s a moral right to e x p e c t th a t o t h e r s will v a l u e a n d tr e a t him in a co rre sp o n d in g ly a p p r o p r ia te way. C o n n e c te d with t h i s p r in c ip le i s a se c o n d , nam ely th a t an indi v id u a l who im p lic itly .o r e x p l ic i tly s i g n i f i e s th a t he h a s c e r ta in s o c i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ought to h a v e th is claim honoured by o t h e r s a n d o u g h t in f a c t t o be w hat h e c l a i m s h e is. In c o n s e q u e n c e , when a n in d iv id u al p r o j e c t s a d e f in itio n of th e s i t u a tio n and th e re b y m a k e s an im p licit or e x p l ic i t claim to be a p e r s o n of a p a r ti c u la r kind, he a u t o m a tic a lly e x e r t s a moral dem and upon th e o th e rs , o b lig i n g them to v a l u e and tr e a t him in t h e m anner th a t p e r s o n s of h i s kind h a v e a right to e x p e c t. H e a l s o im p lic itly fo rg o e s all c l a im s to b e th in g s h e d o e s not a p p e a r to b e 2 and h e n c e fo rg o e s th e treatm ent th a t would be 1 H arold T a x e l , 'A u th o r ity S tru c tu re in a Mental H o s p it a l Ward’, U n p u b lish e d M a s t e r ’ s t h e s i s , D ep artm en t o f S ociolo gy , U n iv e r sity o f C h i c a g o , 1953- 2 T h i a r o l e o f th e w i t n e s s in l im itin g what i t i s th e i n d i v i d u a l c a n b e h a s b e e n s t r e s s e d by E x i s t e n t i a l i s t s , who s e e ic a s a b a s i c th r e a t ro i n d iv id u a l fre edom . S e e J e a n - P a u l S artre ; L ’e tr e e t le n e a n t ( P a r i s : Gallim ard, 1948), p. 319 ff. 6 ap p r o p r ia te for s u c h in d i v i d u a l s TKv. o t h e r s find, t h e n , c h i t th e in d iv i d u a l h a s inform ed them a s to whac i s and a s to what ^hey ought to s e e a s t h e ' i s ’. We c a n n o t ju d g e th e im p o rta n c e of d e f in itio n a l d is r u p tio n s by th e fre<|'iency w ith w hich th e y occ ur, for a p p a r e n tly they n-rmld o c c u r more fre q u e n tly w ere noc c o n s t a n t p r e c a u t i o n s ta k en . We find th a t p r e v e n tiv e p r a c t i c e s a r e c o n s t a n t l y em p lo y e d to u.void t h e s e e m b a r r a s s m e n ts and th a t c o r r e c t i v e p r a c t i c e s a re c o n s t a n t l y e m p lo y e d to c o m p e n s a t e for d i s c r e d i t i n g o c c u r r e n c e s th a t h a v e not been s u c c e s s f u l l y a v o id e d . When th e i n d iv id u a l e m p lo y s t h e s e s t r a t e g i e s and t a c t i c s to p r o t e c t h i s own p r o je c tio n s , we m ay refer to them a s ' d e f e n s i v e p r a c t i c e s ’ ; w hen a p a r t i c i p a n t e m p lo y s them to s a v e th e d e f in i tio n of th e s i t u a t i o n p r o j e c t e d by a n o th e r , we s p e a k o f ' p r o t e c t i v e p r a c t i c e s ’ o r ' t a c t ’. T o g e t h e r , ’d e f e n s i v e and p r o te c tiv e p r a c t i c e s c o m p ris e th e t e c h n i q u e s em plo yed to s a fe g u a r d th e im p r e s s i o n f o s te r e d by a n in d iv id u a l d uring h i s p r e s e n c e b efo re o th e rs . It s h o u ld be a d d e d th a t w hile we a r e p e r h a p s re a d y to s e e th a t no f o s te r e d i m p r e s s io n would s u r v iv e if d e f e n s i v e p r a c t i c e s w ere not e m p lo y e d , we a re p e r h a p s l e s s r e a d y to s e e t h a t few i m p r e s s i o n s c o u ld s u r v iv e i f t h o s e who r e c e iv e d th e i m p r e s s io n did n o t e x e r t t a c t in th e ir re c e p tio n of it. In a d d itio n to th e f a c t th a t p r e c a u t i o n s a re t a k e n to p re v e n t d isr u p tio n of p r o je c te d d e f in i tio n s , we may a l s o n o te th a t an i n t e n s e i n t e r e s t in t h e s e d i s r u p t i o n s co m e s to p la y a s ig n i f i c a n t role in t h e s o c i a l lif e of th e group. P r a c t i c a l j o k e s an d s o c i a l g a m e s a re p la y e d in w hich e m b a r r a s s m e n ts which a r e to b e ta k e n u n s e r i o u s l y a r e p u r p o s e ly e n g i n e e r e d . 1 P h a n t a s i e s a r e c r e a t e d in w hich d e v a s t a t i n g e x p o s u r e s o c c u r . A n e c d o te s from th e p a s t —re a l, em b ro id ered, or f i c t i t i o u s —a r e to ld and re to ld , d e t a il in g d i s r u p t i o n s w hich o cc u rre d , a lm o s t o c c u r re d , o r o c c u rre d and w ere a d m irab ly re s o lv e d . T h e r e s e e m s to be no grouping which d o e s not hav e a r ea d y su p p ly of t h e s e gam es, r e v e r ie s , an d c a u tio n a r y t a l e s , to be u s e d a s a s o u r c e of hum our, a c a t h a r s i s for a n x i e t i e s , and a s a n c ti o n for in d u c in g in d i v id u a ls to be m o d e st in th e ir c la im s an d r e a s o n a b l e in th e ir p r o je c te d e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h e in d iv id ual m a y te ll h im s e lf through d re a m s o f g e t tin g in to i m p o s s ib le p o s i t i o n s . F a m i l i e s te ll of th e tim e a g u e s t got h i s d a t e s mixed and a rriv e d when n e i th e r th e h o u s e nor an y o n e in it w a s r ea d y for him. J o u r n a l i s t s te ll of tim e s when a n a ll-to o -m e a n in g fu l m is p rin t o cc u rre d , an d th e p a p e r ’s a s s u m p tio n of o b j e c t i v i t y or decorum w a s hum orously d i s c r e d ite d . P u b l i c S e r v a n ts te ll of tim es a c l i e n t r id ic u lo u s ly 1 E rv in g G o f fm in , 'C o m m u n i c a ti o n C o n d u c t in an I s l a n d C o m m u n i t y ’ (Un p u b l i s h e d P h . D . d i s s e r t a t i o n , D ep artm en t of S o c i o l o g y , U n iv e r sity of C h i c a g o , 1953), p p . 319-327. 7 m is-u n d e rsto o d form i n s t r u c t i o n s , g iving a n s w e r s which im plied ;m u n a n t ic i p a te d a n d b iz a r r e d e f in itio n of t h e s i t u a t i o n . 1 S e a men, w h o se hom e aw ay from home i s r ig o ro u s ly he-m an, te ll s t o r i e s of com ing bac k home and in a d v e rte n tly a s k in g mother to " p a s s th e f-cking b u t t e r ” . 2 D ip lo m a ts tell of the tim e a n e a r s ig h t e d Q uee n a s k e d a r e p u b li c a n a m b a s s a d o r about th e h e a lth of h i s K ing. 3 T o su m m arize , th e n , I a s s u m e that when an in d iv id u al a p p e a r s before o t h e r s h e will h a v e many m o tiv e s for trying to control t h e im p r e s s io n they r e c e iv e of the s itu a tio n . T h is report i s c o n c e r n e d with so m e of the common te c h n iq u e s th a t i n t e r a c t a n t s em ploy to s u s t a i n su c h i m p r e s s io n s and with so m e o f th e common c o n t i n g e n c i e s a s s o c i a t e d with the em ploym ent of t h e s e te c h n iq u e s . T h e s p e c if ic c o n t e n t of any a c tiv i ty p r e s e n t ed by t h e in d iv id u a l p a r t i c i p a n t , o r the role it p l.\y s in th e in te r d e p e n d e n t a c t i v i t i e s of an on-going s o c ia l s y s t e m , will not be at i s s u e ; I s h a ll be c o n c e r n e d on ly with th e p a r t i c i p a n t ’s d ram a turg ica l p ro b le m s of p r e s e n tin g the a c tiv ity before o th e rs . T h e i s s u e s d e a lt with by s ta g e - c r a f t an d s ta g e - m a n a g e m e n t a re s o m e tim e s triv ia l but th e y a r e q u ite g e n e r a l ; they seem to o c c u r e v e ry w h e re in so c ia l life, prov id in g a c le a r- c u t d im e n sion for formal s o c i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s . It will be c o n v e n ie n t to end t h i s in troduc tion with som e d e f in i tio n s th a t a r e im plied in whac h as gone befo re an.) r e quired for what i s to follow. For t h e pu rp o se of th is report, i n te r a c t io n ( th a t .is, f a c e - to - f a c e in te r a c tio n ) may be roughly •Jctined a s th e r e c ip r o c a l in f lu e n c e of i n d iv i d u a ls upon one a n o t h e r ’s a c t i o n s when in one a n o t h e r ’s im m edia te p h y s ic a l p r e s e n c e . An in te r a c t io n may be defin e d a s all th e in te r a c t io n which o c c u r s th rou ghout any one o c c a s io n when a given s e t of in d iv i d u a ls a r e in one a n o t h e r ’s c o n t in u o u s p r e s e n c e ; the term ' a n e n c o u n t e r ’ would do a s well. A ‘ p e r f o r m a n c e ’ may be d e fin e d a s all th e a c tiv i ty of a given p a rtic ip a n t on a given o c c a s i o n which s e r v e s to in f lu e n c e in any way any of th e o th e r p a r t i c i p a n t s . T a k in g a p a r t i c u l a r p a r tic ip a n t and h i s perform a n c e a s a b a s i c point of r e f e r e n c e , we may refer ro t h o s e who c o n trib u te t h e o th e r p e rf o rm a n c e s a s th e a u d i e n c e , o b s e r v e r s , or c o - p a r ti c ip a n ts . T h e p r e - e s t a b lis h e d p a tte r n of a c tio n which i s unfolded during a p e rfo rm an ce and which may be p r e s e n t e d or 1 P e t e r lilau , ' D y n a m ic s of B u r e a u c r a c y ' ( P h .D . d i s s e r t a t i o n . D epartm ent of Socio lo g y , C o lu m b ia U n iv e r sity , forthcoming, U n iv er sity of C h i c a g o P t c s s ) , pp. 127-129. 2 ^’n l t e r M. b e a t t i e , J r . , ' T h e M erchant S e a m a n ' (U n p u b l i s h e d M.A . Report, D ep artm en t of S o c io lo g y , U niv ersity of Cliic.iRo, 1950), |>. 35. 3 Sir l-'redcrick P o n s o n b y , R e c o lle c tio n s o f T h ree R e ie n s (N ew York: D utton, 1952), p. 46. 8 p la y e d through on o th e r o c c a s i o n s may be c a l l e d a ' p a r t ’ or ‘ r o u t i n e ’. 1 T h e s e s i t u a ti o n a l te rm s c a n e a s i l y be r e l a t e d to c o n v e n tio n a l s tr u c t u ra l o n e s . When an in d iv id u al or perform er p l a y s th e s a m e part to t h e s a m e a u d i e n c e o n d iffe ren t o c c a s io n s , -a s o c ia l r e l a t i o n s h i p i s l ik e ly to a r i s e . D efining s o c ia l ro le a s t h e e n a c tm e n t o f r ig h ts and d u t i e s a t ta c h e d to a given s t a t u s , 'We ca n sa y th a t a s o c i a l role will in v o lv e one or more p a r t s and th a t e a c h o f t h e s e diffe ren t p a r t s may be p r e s e n t e d by th e perform er on a s e r i e s o f o c c a s i o n s to th e s a m e k i n d s of a u d i e n c e or to an a u d i e n c e o f th e s a m e p e r s o n s . 1 F o r c o m m e n ts on t h e i m p o rta n c e of d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n a ro u tin e o f i n t e r a c t i o n and any p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e when t h i s r o u tin e i s p l a y e d through, s e e J o h n von Neu m an n a n d O s k a r M o rgenstern, T he T h eo ry o f G am es ana E c o n o m ic B e h a v io u r (2nd e d . ; P .- i n c e t o n : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1947), p. 49. CHAPTER I PER F O R M A N C ES Belief in the Part One is Playing When a n in d ividu al p l a y s a part h e im p lic itly r e q u e s t s h is o b s e r v e r s to ta k e s e r io u s ly th e im p r e s s io n that i s fo ste r e d before them . T h e y a r e a s k e d to b e l ie v e th a t th e c h a r a c t e r they s e e a c t u a l l y p o s s e s s e s th e a t t r i b u t e s h e a p p e a r s to p o s s e s s , th a t the t a s k h e perform s will h a v e th e c o n s e q u e n c e s th a t a re im p lic itly c l a im e d for it, a n d tha t, in g e n e r a l, m a tte rs are w hat th e y a p p e a r to be. In lin e with t h is , th e re i s the p o p u la r view that the in d iv id ual o f fe rs h is p erfo rm an ce an d p u t s on h is show ' for the b e n e fit of o th e r people.' It will be c o n v e n ie n t to begin a c o n s id e r a tio n of p e r f o rm a n c e s by turning t h e q u e s tio n aroun d and lo oking a t the in d iv id u a l’s own b e lie f in th e im p re ssio n of r e a l i t y th a t he a t te m p ts to e n g e n d e r in th o s e am ong whom h e f in d s h im self. At one extrem e, ■we find th a t th e perform er c a n be fully taken in by h i s own a c t ; he c a n be s in c e r e l y c o n v in c e d th a t th e im p re ssio n o f r e a l i t y which h e s ta g e s i s th e real r e a lity . When h i s a u d i e n c e i s a l s o c o n v in c e d in t h i s way a bo ut th e show he p u t s o n —a n d t h i s s e e m s to be the ty p ic a l c a s e —then for the moment, anyw ay, only th e s o c i o l o g i s t o r t h e s o c i a l l y d is g ru n tle d will h a v e a n y d o u b ts abo u t th e ' r e a l n e s s ’ of what i s p r e s e n te d . At the oth e r ex tre m e, we find th a t th e performer may n o t be ta k e n in a t all by h is own ro utine. T h i s p o s s i b i l i t y i s under s t a n d a b l e , s i n c e no o n e i s in q u ite a s good an o b s e rv a tio n a l p o s itio n to s e e through the a c t a s th e p erso n who p u ts it on. C o u p led with th i s , th e perform er may be moved to .guide the co n v ic tio n of h i s a u d i e n c e only a s a m e a n s to o th e r e n d s , ha v in g no u ltim ate co n c ern in th e c o n c e p t io n th a t th e y hav e of him o r of th e s it u a ti o n . When the ind iv id u al h a s no b e lie f in h i s own a c t a n d no u ltim a te concern with th e b e l ie f s o f h i s a u d i e n c e , we may ca ll him c y n ic a l, r e s e r v i n g th e term s i n c e r e for i n d iv i d u a ls who b e lie v e in th e im p r e s s io n f o s te r e d by th e ir own perform ance. It shou ld be u n d e rsto o d th a t th e c y n ic , with a ll h i s p r o f e s s io n a l d isin v o lv e m e n t, may o b ta in u n p r o fe s s io n a l p l e a s u r e s from his m a sq u e ra d e , e x p e r ie n c in g a kind of gleeful s p ir itu a l a g g r e s s io n from th e fac t that h e c a n toy a t will with som ething h i s a u d i e n c e m ust ta k e s e r i o u s l y . 1 ’ P e r h a p s the real cr im e of th e c o n f i d e n c e man i s n o t th at he t a k e s money from h i s v i c t i m s buc chat he r o b s all of u s o f the b e lie f chat m i d d l e - c l a s s m a n n e r s an d a p p e a r a n c e c a n be s u s t a i n e d o n ly by m i d d l e - c l a s s p e o p l e . A 10 It i s not a s s u m e d , of c o u r s e , th a t all c y n i c a l perform ers a re i n t e r e s t e d in d e lu d in g th e ir a u d i e n c e s for p u r p o s e s of what i s c a l l e d ' s e l f - i n t e r e s t ' o r p r iv a t e gain. A c y n i c a l in d ividual may d elu d e h i s a u d i e n c e for what he c o n s i d e r s to be th e ir own good, or for the good o f the com munity, e t c . F o r i l l u s t r a t i o n s of th is we n e e d not a p p e al to s a d ly e n l ig h te n e d showmen s u c h a s M arcus A u re liu s or H sun T z u . We know that in s e r v i c e o c c u p a t io n s p r a c t i t i o n e r s who may o th e rw is e be s in c e r e are s o m e tim e s forced to d elu d e th e ir c u s t o m e r s b e c a u s e th e ir c u s to m e r s show s u c h a h e a r tf e lt dem and for it. D o c to r s who are led into giving p l a c e b o s , f illi n g - s t a tio n a t t e n d a n t s who r e s ig n e d ly c h e c k and r e c h e c k tire p r e s s u r e s for a n x i o u s women m o to r is t s , sh o e c l e r k s who s e ll a sh o e th a t fits but t e l l the cu s to m e r it i s th e s i z e s h e w a n ts to h e a r —t h e s e a r e c y n i c a l perform ers w hose a u d i e n c e s will not a llow them to be s in c e r e . Similarly, we find th a t s y m p a th e tic p a t i e n t s in m ental w ards will s o m e tim e s feign b iz a r re sym ptom s so th a t s tu d e n t n u r s e s will not be s u b je c t e d to a d is a p p o in ti n g ly s a n e perform ance. 1 So a ls o , when infer i o r s e x ten d th e ir most la v is h r e c e p tio n for v i s i tin g s u p e rio r s , th e s e l f i s h d e s i r e to win favour may not be the c h i e f m o tiv e; the inferio r may be ta c tf u lly attem p tin g to put the su p e rio r at e a s e by s im u la tin g the kind of world the s u p e r io r i s thought to ta k e for gran ted. I hav e s u g g e s te d two e x t r e m e s : an in d iv id u a l may be taken in by h i s own a c t or be c y n i c a l abo u t it. T h e s e e x tre m e s are so m e th in g a l i t t l e more th a n ju s t the e n d s of a continuum . E ach p r o v id e s the in d iv id u a l with a p o s itio n which h a s i t s own par tic u la r s e c u r i t i e s and d e f e n c e s , s o th e re will be a te n d e n c y for th o s e who have tr a v e lle d c l o s e to o n e of t h e s e p o l e s to com p le te the voyage. S tartin g with la c k of inward b e lie f in o n e ’s role, th e in d iv id u a l may follow the natural movement d e s c r ib e d by P a r k : It i s probably no mere h i s t o r i c a l a c c i d e n t t h a t the word p e r s o n , in i t s f i rs t m e a n in g , ts a m a s k . It i s r a t h e r a r e c o g n i t i o n of th e f a c t t h a t d i s a b u s e d p r o f e s s i o n a l c a n be c y n i c a l l y h o s t i l e 10 t h e s e r v i c e r e l a t i o n h i s c l i e n t s e x p e c t him to e x t e n d to t h e m ; the c o n f id e n c e man is in a p o sitio n to hol d the whole 1 le g i t * world in t h i s co ntem pt. ' S e e L'dxel, op. c i t ., p. 4. Marry S t a c k Sullivan h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t th e t a c t of i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d p er fo r m er s c a n o p e r a t e in th e ocher d i r e c t i o n , r e s u l t i n g in a kind of n o b le s s c ^ o b lig e s a n i ty . bee h i s ‘ S o c i o - P s y c h i a t r i c Research A m e ric a n Jo u rn a l o f P s y c h ia tr y , X, pp. 987*988. M A study of ’ .social r e c o v e r i e s 1 in o n e of our large m en tal h o s p i t a l s so m e y e a r s a g o caught me t h a t p a t i e n t s were often r e l e a s e d from c a r e b e c a u s e they had l earn ed noc to m a n i f e s t sym ptom s t o the e n v i r o n i n g p e r s o n s ; in o th er words, had i n t e g r a t e d en ou g h of the p e r s o n a l e n v iro nm en t to r e a l i z e the p r e j u d i c e o p p o s e d to th e i r d e l u s i o n s . It s e e m e d a l m o s t a s i f they grew w is e en o u g h t o be t o l e r a n t of th e tm b eciliry su rro u n d in g them, hav in g fin ally d i s c o v e r e d t h a t it was s t u p i d i t y and not m a lic e . T h e y c o u l d then s e c u r e s a t i s f a c t i o n from c o n t a c t with o t h e r s , while d i s c h a r g i n g a p ar t of th e i r c r a v i n g s by p s y c h o t i c m ean s . 11 e v e r y o n e i s a l w a y s a nd e v e r y w h e r e , more or l e s s c o n s c i o u s l y , p l a y i n g a role . . . I t i s in t h e s e r o l e s t h a t w e know e a c h o t h e r ; it i s in t h e s e r o l e s th a t w e k n ow o u r s e l v e s . 1 In a s e n s e , a n d in s o Jar a s t h i s m a s k r e p r e s e n t s the c o n c e p t i o n we h a v e formed of o u r s e l v e s —t h e r o l e we are s t r i v i n g t o live up t o —tli i s m a s k i s o u r truer s e l f , the s e l f we would l i k e to be. In t h e end, our co n c e p t i o n of our r o l e b e c o m e s s e c o n d n a tu r e an d a n in t e g r a l p a r t of our personality. co m e i n t o t h e world a s i n d i v i d u a l s , a c h i e v e c h a r a c t e r , and become p e r s o n s .2 T h i s may be illu s c r a te d from t h e w riter’ s stu d y of an is l a n d com m unity o f c r o f t e r s , th a t i s , s m a ll- h o ld in g farm ers. 3 F o r t h e l a s t four or five y e a r s th e i s l a n d ' s to u r is t ho te l h a s bee n o w ned an d o p e r a te d by a m arried c o u p le of c ro f te r o r ig in s . From th e beginning , th e o w n e r s w ere forced to s e t a s i d e th e ir own c o n c e p t i o n s a s to how lif e ought to be led, d is p l a y in g in th e hotel a full round of m i d d l e - c l a s s s e r v i c e s and a m e n i t i e s . L a t e l y , how eve r, it a p p e a r s th a t the m a n a g e rs h a v e b ec o m e l e s s c y n ic a l a b o u t th e perform ance th a t they s t a g e ; they t h e m s e l v e s a r e becom ing m iddle c l a s s an d more and more ena m o u red of th e s e l v e s th e ir c l i e n t s impuce to them. Another il l u s t r a t i o n may be found in th e raw re c ru it who in it ia l ly fo llo w s army e t iq u e t te in o rd e r to a v oid p h y s ic a l punish m en t and who e v e n tu a lly co m es to follow th e r u l e s s o th a t h is o r g a n iz a tio n will not be sh a m e d and h i s o f f i c e r s a n d f e ll o w - s o ld i e r s will r e s p e c t him. A s s u g g e s t e d , th e c y c l e of d i s b e lie f - to - b e l ie f c a n be fo ll owed in the o th e r d ir e c tio n , s t a r t i n g with c o n v ic tio n or i n s e c u r e a s p ir a tio n and e n d in g in c y n ic is m . P r o f e s s i o n s w hich the p u b lic h o ld s in r e l i g i o u s aw e often allow th e ir r e c r u i t s to follow th e c y c l e in t h i s d ir e c tio n , anti o fte n r e c r u i t s follow it in t h i s d ir e c tio n not b e c a u s e of a slo w r e a l i z a t i o n that th e y are d e lu d in g th e ir a u d i e n c e —for by ordinary s o c i a l s t a n d a r d s th e c l a i m s th e y m ake may be q u ite v a l id —but b e c a u s e they c a n u s e t h is c y n i c is m a s a m e a n s of i n s u l a ti n g th e ir in ner s e l v e s from c o n t a c t with th e a u d i e n c e . ■ And we may e v e n e x p e c t to find t y p ic a l c a r e e r s o f faith , w ith the in d iv id u a l s t a r t i n g out with o n e kind of in v o lv e m e n t in the p erform an ce he i s r e q u ir e d to giv e , then moving bac k and forth s e v e r a l tim e s b etw e en s i n c e r ity an d c y n i c is m before c o m p le tin g all th e p h a s e s an d turning- p o in ts of s e l f - b e l i e f for a p e r s o n of h is s ta tio n . While we c a n e x p e c t to find n a tu ra l movement bac k and forth b e tw e e n c y n i c is m a n d s in c e r ity , s t i l l we m ust n o t r u le out t h e k in d o f t r a n s i t i o n a l p o in ts th a t can b e s u s t a i n e d , on th e l R o b e r t E z ra P a r k , R a c e a n d C u ltu re ( G l e n c o e . | l l l . : T h e F r e e P r e s s , 1950), p. 249. 3 H i d . , p . 2 50. 3 T h e s t u d y w a s f in a n c e d by t h e D e p a r tm e n t of S o c i a l Anthropology And t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s R e s e a r c h Com m ittee of the U n iv e r sity of Kdinburgh a n d re p o rt e d i o p a r t in Goffm an, o p . c it. 12 stre n g th o f a l i t t l e s e lf - il lu s io n . We find th a t the in d iv id u a l may a tte m p t to in d u c e th e a u d ie n c e to judge him and th e s i t u a tio n in a p a r ti c u la r way, and h e may s e e k t h i s judg e m en t a s an u ltim a te en d in i t s e l f , and yet he may not c o m p le te ly b e l i e v e th a t he d e s e r v e s th e v a lu a tio n of s e lf which he a s k s for or that th e im p r e s s io n of r e a lity which he f o s t e r s i s v a lid . Another m ixture of c y n i c is m an d b e l ie f is s u g g e s t e d in K ro e b er’s d i s cussion of sham anism : N e x t , t h e r e i s the o ld q u e s tio n of d e ceptio n« P ro b a b l y m o s t s h a m a n s or m e d i c i n e men, the world over , h e l p a l o n g with sl e ig h t - o f - h a n d in cu rin g an d e s p e c i a l l y in e x h i b i t i o n s o f p o w er. T h i s s l e ig h t - o f -h a n d is s o m e ti m e s d e l i b e r a t e ; in many c a s e s a w a r e n e s s i s p e r h a p s no t d e e p e r chan the f o r e c o n s c i o u s . T h e a t t i t u d e , w h e th e r th e r e h a s b een r e p r e s s i o n or n ot, s e e m s to b e a s to w ard a p i o u s frau d. F i e l d e t h n o g r a p h e r s seem q u i t e g e n e r a l l y c o n v i n c e d th at ev en s h a m a n s who know t h a t they add fraud n e v e r t h e l e s s a l s o b e l i e v e in th eir p o w e r s , an d e s p e c i a l l y in t h o s e o f o t h e r s h a m a n s : they c o n s u l t them whet! th ey t h e m s e l v e s or theLr c h i l d r e n a r e il l . 1 Front We h a v e bee n u s in g the term ' p e r f o r m a n c e ' to refer to all t h e a c tiv i ty of an in d iv i d u a l which o c c u r s during a period marked by h i s c o n t in u o u s p r e s e n c e before a p a r ti c u la r s e t of o b s e r v e r s a n d w hich h a s so m e in flu e n c e on the o b s e r v e r s . It will be c o n v e n ie n t to la b el a s ' f r o n t ’ th a t part of the in d iv id u a l ’s perfo rm an ce which re g u la rly f u n c ti o n s in a general and fixed fash io n to d e fin e th e s i t u a t i o n for t h o s e who o b s e r v e the perform ance. F ro n t, th e n , i s th e e x p r e s s i v e e quipm ent of a s ta n d a r d kind i n t e n t io n a lly or unw ittin g ly em ployed by the ind iv id u al during h is perform ance. F or p relim in ary p u r p o s e s , it v.ill be c o n v e n ie n t to d i s t i n g u i s h and la b e l what s e e m to be the sta n d aril p a r t s of front. F i r s t , th e re is th e ' s e t t i n g ’, in v o lv in g furniture, decor, p h y s ic a l lay-out, and o th e r backgroun d ite m s w hich su p p ly th e s c e n e r y and s t a g e p r o p s for th e s p a t e of human a c tio n p la y ed out before, w ithin, or upon it. A s e ttin g t e n d s to s ta y put, g e o g r a p h ic a lly s p e a k in g , so th a t th o s e who would u s e a par tic u la r s e t t i n g a s p a rt of th e ir perform ance c a n n o t b eg in th e ir a c t until they have brought t h e m s e lv e s to the ap p ro p ria te p l a c e and must te rm in a te th e ir p erform ance when th e y le a v e it. It i s only in e x c e p t io n a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s that the s e t t i n g , in a s e n s e , fo llo w s a lo n g with the p e r f o rm e r s ; we s e e th is in th e fu n eral c o rte g e, the c i v i c p a r a d e , and th e d ream -like p r o c e s s i o n s that" k in g s an d q u e e n s are made of. In th e main, t h e s e e x c e p t i o n s seem to offer so m e kind of ex tra p ro te c tio n for p erform ers who ; A . I .. K ro c b e r , T h e feature o f C u ltu re ( C h i c a g o : U n iv e r sity o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , l l)^2), p. 3 N . 13 are , or who h a v e m om entarily b ec o m e , highly s a c r e d . I hese w o rth ie s are to be d is t in g u is h e d , of c o u r s e , from quite profane perform ers o f the p e d d le r c l a s s who move th e ir pl;ice of work b e tw e e n p e r f o rm a n c e s, o ften b eing forced to do so. In th e m a tte r of h avin g on e fix ed p la c e for o n e ' s s e t t i n g , a ru ler may be too s a c r e d , a p e d d le r too p rofa ne. In th in k in g about th e s c e n i c a s p e c t s of front, we te n d to think of the liv i n g room in a p a r t i c u l a r h o u s e and th e small number of p erform ers who ca n thoroughly id e n tify t h e m s e l v e s with it. We h ave g iv e n in s u f f ic i e n t a t te n t io n to a s s e m b l a g e s of of s ig n - e q u ip m e n t w hich larg e n u m b e rs of perform ers c a n ca ll th e ir own for s h o rt p e r io d s of tim e. It i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Western E u ro p e a n c o u n t r i e s , and no doubt a s o u r c e o f s t a b i l i t y f o r ^ , 1" th a t a la rg e num ber of lu x u r io u s s e t t i n g s a r e a v a i l a b l e for hire to a n y o n e of th e right kind who can afford them. One i ll u s tr a ti o n of t h is may be c i te d from a stu d y of the h ig h e r c iv il s e rv a n t in B r ita in : T h e q u e s t io n liow far the men who r i s e t o the top in the C i v i l S e r v ic e t a k e on t h e ' t o n e * or ' c o l o u r * of a c l a s s other than t h a t to w h i c h they b e l o n g by birth is d e l i c a t e a nd d if fic u lt. T h e only d e f i n i te inf ormation b e a r in g on th e q u e s t i o n i s th e f i g u r e s re l a t i n g to th e m em b ersh ip of the g r e a t London c l u b s . More than t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of our high a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c i a l s b elo n g to one or more c l u b s of high s t a t u s an d c o n s i d e r a b l e Luxury, where the e n t r a n c e fee might be tw en ty g u i n e a s or more, a n d rhe an n ual s u b s c r i p t io n from t w elv e to tw en ty g u i n e a s . T h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e of t h e u p p e r c l a s s (not ev en of t h e upp er-m idd le) in th e i r p r e m i s e s , th e i r equ ip m en t, t h e s t y l e of livin g p r a c t i s e d t h ere, their whole a t m osphere. Tho ug h many of the m em b er s would not be d e s c r i b e d a s w e a l t h y , onl y a w ealth y man would u n a i d e d pro vid e for h i m s e l f a nd h is f am ily s p a c e , food an d d rin k, s e r v i c e , and o ther a m e n i t i e s of life to the s a m e s t a n d a rd a s h e will find at t h e Uruon, the T r a v e l l e r s ’, or th e Reform. 1 A n o th er e x a m p le c a n be found in th e re c e n t d evelopm ent of th e m e d ic a l p r o f e s s io n w here we find th a t it i s i n c r e a s i n g ly im p o rta n t for a doctor to h a v e a c c e s s to the e l a b o r a t e s c i e n t i f i c s t a g e p rovided by la rg e h o s p i t a l s , so th a t few er an d few er d o c t o r s are a b le to feel th a t th e ir s e t t i n g i s a p l a c e th a t they c a n lock up at night. 2 If we ta k e th e term ' s e t t i n g ’ to refer to th e s c e n i c p a r t s ol e x p r e s s i v e eq uipm ent, -we may ta k e th e term ' p e r s o n a l f r o n t ’ to refer to the oth e r ite m s of e x p r e s s i v e e q u ip m en t, th e ite m s th a t we most in tim a te ly id e n tify with th e perform er him s elf and th at we n a t u r a lly e x p e c t will follow t h e perform er w herever he g o e s . As part of p e r s o n a l front we may i n c l u d e : in s ig n ia of o ffic e or r a n k ; c l o t h i n g ; s e x , age, and r a c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; s i z e and l o o k s ; p o s t u r e ; s p e e c h p a t t e r n s ; f a c ia l e x p r e s s i o n s ; bodily 1 U . K . D a l e , T k e H igher C iv il S e r v ic e o f G reat ftrita in (O x fo r d : Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1941), p. 50. 2 D a v id Solomon, ' C a r e e r C o n t i n g e n c i e s ol C h ic a g o P h y s i c i a n s ' (U npub l i s h e d P h . IX d i s s e r t a t i o n , D e p a r tm e n t ol S o cio lo gy , U n iv e r sity of C h i c a a o . 1952). p. 74. 14 g e s t u r e s ; an 1 the lik e . Some of t h e s e v e h i c le s for c o n v e y in g s i g n s , su c h a s r a c ia l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , are r e l a t i v e l y fixed and over a spa n of tim e Jo not vary for th e ind iv id u al from o n e s itu a tio n to another. On t h e orhcr hand, s o m e of t h e s e sig n v e h i c l e s are r e la tiv e ly m obile or tr a n s ito r y , su c h a s facial e x p - e s s io n , an 1 ca n vary .luring a perform ance from one moment to th e next. It i s so m e tim e s c o n v e n ie n t to d iv id e th e stimuli which make up p e r so n a l front into ' a p p e a r a n c e ’ and ’ m a n n e r ’, a c c o rd in g to th e function perform ed by the inform ation that t h e s e stim uli convey. ' A p p e a r a n c e ’ may be ta k e n to refer to t h o s e stim uli which function at th e tim e to tell u s of th e perform er’s s o c ia l s t a t u s e s . T h e s e stimuli also te ll u s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l 's tem porary ritu a l s t a t e , th a t i s , w hether he i s e n g a g in g in formal s o c ia l a c tiv i ty , work, or informal re c re a tio n , w h eth e r or not he is c e le b r a tin g a new p h a s e in the s e a s o n c y c le or in h is lif e -c y c le . ' M a n n e r ' may be ta k e n to refer to th o s e stim uli w hich fu n ction at the tim e to warn u s of th e inter a c tio n ro le th e performer will e x p e c t to play in th e on-coming s it u a ti o n . T h u s a haughty a g g r e s s i v e manner may give th e im p r e s s io n th a t the perform er e x p e c t s to be the one who will i n i t i a t e th e verbal in te r a c tio n and d ir e c t i t s c o u r s e . A meek, a p o lo g e tic manner may give th e im p re ssio n th a t the perform er e x p e c t s to follow the le a d of o th e r s , or at l e a s t th a t he can 1>e g o tte n to do so. Sim ilarly, if an ind iv id u al i s angry h is manner will te ll u s upon whom he i s lik e ly to be in a p o s itio n to vent h i s anger. We o fte n e x p e c t , of c o u r s e , a c o n firm ing c o n s i s t e n c y be tw e e n a p p e a r a n c e and m a n n er; we e x p e c t th a t th e d if f e r e n c e s in s o c i a l s t a t u s e s among th e i o t e r a c t a n t s will be e x p r e s s e d in s o m e way by c o ng ru e nt d if f e r e n c e s in th e in d i c a t i o n s that a r e m ade of e x p e c t e d in te r a c tio n role. T h i s ty pe of co h e re n c e of front may be ill u s tr a te d by the follow ing d e s c r ip tio n o f th e p r o c e s s io n of a m andarin through a C h i n e s e c i ty : Co m ing c l o s e l y behind . . . the l u x u r io u s c h a i r o f the man darin, c a r r ie d by e i g h t b e a r e r s , f i ll s the v a c a n t s p a c e in the s t r e e t . Me is mayor of the town, and for a l l p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s die s u p r e m e p o w e r in it. lie is an i d e a l- lo o k in g o f ficial, for he is large a n d m a s s i v e in a p p e a r a n c e , w h i l s t he h a s th at ste rn a n d u nco m p risin g look th at is s u p p o s e d to be n e c e s s a r y in any m a g i s t r a t e who wou ld hop e t o k eep h is s u b j e c t s in o rder, lie lias a s t e m and forb idding a s p e c t , as though h e w ere on h is way t o the e x e c u t i o n ground t o h a v e som e crim in al d e c a p i t a t e d . T h i s i s t h e k in d of air t h a t the m an d arin s p u t on when th ey a p p e a r in p u b l i c . In t h e c o u r s e of many y e a r s ' e x p e r i e n c e . 1 h ave n e v e r o n ce s e e n a ny of them , from the h i g h e s t to the l o w e s t , w ith a sm ile on h i s fa cc or a look of sy m p a th y for the p e o p l e w h i l s t he w a s b e in g c a r r ic d o f fic ia lly through the s t r e e t s . 1 b u t , of c o u r s e , a p p e a r a n c e and m anner may tend to c o n tra d ic t e a c h o th e r, a s when a perform er who a p p e a r s to be of h ig h e r 1J . Macgowart, S id e lig h ts on C h in e s e L i fe ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : L ip pincoct, 1908), p. 187. 15 e s t a t e than h i s a u d i e n c e a c t s in a m anner th a t i s u n e x p e c te d ly e q u a lit a r ia n , or in tim a te , or a p o l o g e t i c , or when a perform er d r e s s e d in th e g arm e n ts o f a high p o s it io n p r e s e n t s h im s e lf to an in d iv id u al of ev e n higher s t a t u s . In a d d itio n to th e e x p e c te d c o n s i s t e n c y b e tw e en a p p e a r a n c e and manner, we e x p e c t, of c o u r s e , so m e c o h e r e n c e among s e ttin g , a p p e a r a n c e , and manner. 1 In a s e n s e , s u c h c o h e r e n c e r e p r e s e n t s an id e al type th a t p r o v id e s u s w ith a m e a n s of s tim u la tin g our i n t e r e s t in and a t te n t io n to e x c e p t i o n s . In th is th e stu d e n t i s a s s i s t e d by th e jo u r n a l is t, for e x c e p t io n s to e x p e c ted c o n s i s t e n c y am ong s e ttin g , a p p e a r a n c e , .and manner p ro v id e the p iq u a n c y and glamour of many c a r e e r s and th e s a l e a b l e a p p e a l of many m a g a z in e a r t i c l e s . 2 In o rd e r to ex p lo re more fully the r e l a t i o n s am ong the s e v e r al p a r t s of s o c ia l front, it will be c o n v e n ie n t to c o n s id e r here a s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of the inform ation c o n v e y e d by front, nam ely, i t s a b s t r a c t n e s s and g e n e r a lity . H o w ev er s p e c i a l i z e d and u niq ue a r o u tin e i s , i t s s o c ia l front, with c e r ta in e x c e p t io n s , will te n d to claim f a c t s th a t can be e q u a lly claim ed and a s s e r t e d of o th e r, som ew hat d ifferent r o u tin e s . ; F o r exa m ple , many s e r v i c e o c c u p a t i o n s offer th e ir c l i e n t s a p erfo rm an ce that i s illu m in a te d with dram a tic ex p r e s s i o n s of c l e a n l i n e s s , m odernity, c o m p e te n c e , in te g r ity , e tc . While in f a c t t h e s e a b s t r a c t s t a n d a r d s h a v e a different s ig n i f i c a n c e in d iffe re n t o c c u p a t io n a l p e rfo rm a n c e s, the o b s e rv e r i s en c o u r a g e d to s t r e s s the a b s t r a c t s im ila r it ie s . F o r the o b s e rv e r t h is i s a w onderful, chough s o m e tim e s d i s a s t r o u s , c o n v e n i e n c e . I n s te a d o f h a v in g to m a in ta in a d iffe re n t p a tte r n of e x p e c ta tio n an d r e s p o n s i v e tr e a tm e n t for e a c h s li g h tly d iffe re n t perform er and p erform ance , he c a n p la c e the s i t u a ti o n in to a broad c a t egory aro und which it i s e a s y for him to m o b iliz e h is p a s t ex p e r ie n c e and s te r e o - ty p ic a l think ing. O b s e r v e r s then n e e d only be f a m ilia r with a sm a ll and h e n c e m a n a g e a b le v oca bula ry of f r o n ts and know how to resp o n d to them in order to o rie n t them s e l v e s in a wide v a r ie ty of s i t u a t i o n s . T h u s in L ond on th e cu rren t te n d e n c y for chim ney s w e e p s 3 an d perfume c l e r k s to w ear w hite l a b c o a t s t e n d s to provide th e c l ie n t with an u nd er s ta n d i n g th a t th e d e l i c a t e t a s k s perform ed by t h e s e p e r s o n s 1 C l. Kenneth B u r k e 's c o m m e n t s on t h e ' s c e n e - a c t - a g e n t r a t i o ’, A Grammar o f M o tiv es (N ew York: P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1945) pp. 6-9. ^ F o r ex am p le, th e N e w Y o rke r P r o f i l e on R o g e r S t e v e n s (the r e a l e s t a t e a g e n t who e n g i n e e r e d the s a l e of the E m p ire S t a t e B u ildin g ) com m en ts on the s t a r t l i n g fact t h a t S t e v e n s h a s a sm a ll h o u s e , a m eag re o f f i c e , a nd n o l e t t e r h e a d s t a t i o n e r y . S ee E. J . K a h n , J r . , ' C l o s i n g s and O p e n i n g s ' , T h e N e w Y o rke r, F e b r u a ry 13 an d 20, 1954. 3 S e c Mervyn J o n e s , 'W h i t e a s a S w e e p ' , T h e N e w S ta te s m a n a n d N a tio n , D ece m b e r 6, 1952. 16 will be perform ed in what h a s becom e a s ta n d a r d iz e d , c l i n i c a l , c o n f id e n tia l manner. T h e r e a r e g ro u n d s for b e lie v in g th a t the te n d en c y for a l a r g e number of d if fe re n t a c t s to be p r e s e n te d from b eh in d a sm all number of f ro n ts i s a n a tu ra l dev e lo p m e n t in s o c ia l o r g a n iz a tio n . K adcliffe-H row n h a s s u g g e s t e d t h i s in h is claim th a t a d e s c r i p t i v e k in s h ip s y s te m w hich g i v e s e a c h p e rso n a u n iq u e p l a c e may work for very small c o m m u n itie s, but, a s the num ber o f p e r s o n s b e c o m e s la rg e , clan s e g m e n ta tio n b ec o m e s n e c e s s a r y a s a m e a n s of providing a l e s s c o m p lic a te d system of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s and tr e a tm e n ts . 1 We s e e t h i s te n d e n c y i l l u s tr a te d in f a c t o r i e s , b a r r a c k s, and other l a r g e s o c ia l e s t a b l i s h m e n ts. T h o s e who o r g a n iz e t h e s e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s find it im p o s s i b l e to p ro v id e a s p e c ia l c a f e te ria , s p e c i a l m o d e s of p a y ment, s p e c i a l v a c a tio n rig h ts , and s p e c i a l s a n ita r y f a c i l i t i e s for evc-ry lin e and s t a f f s t a t u s c a te g o ry in th e o r g a n iz a tio n , and at the sa m e tim e they feel th a t p e r s o n s o f d i s s i m i l a r s t a t u s ought not to be in d is c r im in a te ly thrown to g e th e r or c l a s s i f i e d to g e th e r. As a com prom ise, th e full ran g e of d iv e rs ity is cut at a few crucial p o in ts , and all t h o s e w ithin a given brac ket are allo w ed or o b lig e d to m a in ta in the sam e s o c ia l front in ce r ta in s it u a t i o n s . In a d d itio n to th e fact t h a t d iffe ren t r o u tin e s may em ploy the s a m e front, it i s to be noted th at a g iv e n s o c ia l front te n d s to bec om e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d in te rm s of t h e a b s t r a c t s t e r e o t y p e d e x p e c t a t i o n s to which it g iv e s r i s e , and te n d s to t a k e on a m eaning and s t a b i l i t y ap art from the s p e c i f i c t a s k s which h a p p e n at the tim e to be performed in i t s nam e. T h e front b e c o m e s a ' c o l l e c t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ’ and a fa c t in i t s own right. When an a c t o r t a k e s on an e s t a b l i s h e d s o c ia l role, u s u a lly he fin d s th a t a p a r tic u la r front h a s a lre ad y been e s t a b l i s h e d for it. Whether h is a c q u i s i t i o n of th e role w a s prim arily m otivated by a d e s ir e to perform th e given t a s k or by a d e s ir e to m aintain the co rre sp o n d in g front, th e a c to r will find that he must do both. F u rth e r, if t h e in d iv id u a l t a k e s on a ta sk th a t i s not only new to him but a l s o u n e s t a b l i s h e d in th e s o c i e t y . - o r if he a t te m p ts to c h a n g e the light in which h is ta s k is vie w e d , he i s lik e lv to find th a t th e re are a lre a d y s e v e r a l w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d fro n ts am ong which he must c h o o s e . T h u s , when a ta s k i s g ive n a new front we seldom find that the front it is g iv e n is i t s e l f new. Since f ro n ts tend ro be s e l e c t e d , not c r e a te d , we may e x p e c t tr o u b le to a r i s e when t h o s e who perform a g iv e n ta s k are forced 1 A. U. Ra dcliffe-ftro wn, ’ The S o c ia l O rg an izatio n of A u s tr a l i a n T r i b e s ’, O c e a n ia , 1, 440. 17 to s e l e c t a s u i t a b l e front for t h e m s e l v e s from am ong s e v e r a l q u ite d i s s i m i l a r o n e s . T h u s , in m ilitary o r g a n iz a ti o n s , t a s k s a re a l w a y s d e v e lo p in g w hich (it i s felt) re q u ire too much a uthor ity an d s k ill to be c a r rie d out behind th e front m a in ta in e d by o n e g ra d e of p e r s o n n e l an d too l i t t l e a u th o rity an.) s k i ’l to be ca r rie d o u t behind th e front m a in ta in e d by th e ne-'r ;ra.l<* in the h ie ra rc h y . S in c e th e re are r e la tiv e ly la r g e ju r m s b e tw e e n g r a d e s , th e r a s k w ill co m e to ' c a r r y too much . a r k 1 or to carry too l it tle . An i n t e r e s t i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n of th e dilem m a of s e l e c t i n g an a p p r o p r ia te front from s e v e r a l not q uite f ittin g o i'e s may be found to d a y in A m erican m e d ic a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s with r e s p e c t to th e t a s k o f a d m in is t e r in g a n e s t h e s i a . 1 In s o m : h o s p i t a l s a n e s t h e s i a i s s ti ll a d m in is te r e d by n u r s e s b e h in d th e front th a t n u r s e s a r e a llo w e d to h a v e in h o s p i t a l s r e g a r d l e s s of th e t a s k s th e y p e rfo rm —a front in v o lv in g c e re m o n ia l su b o r d in a tio n and a r e l a t i v e l y low r a t e of pay. In order to e s t a b l i s h a n e s t h e s i o l o g y a s a s p e c i a l i t y for g r a d u a te m e d ic a l d o c t o r s , i n t e r e s t e d p r a c t i t i o n e r s h a v e had to a d v o c a t e stro n g ly th e id e a that a d m in is t e r in g a n e s t h e s i a i s a s u f f i c ie n tly c om plex an d v i ta l t a s k to ju s t if y i n g g iv in g to th o s e who perform it the c e rem onia l and f in a n c ia l rew ard g iv e n to d o c t o r s . T h e d if f e r e n c e b e tw e e n th e front m a in ta in e d by a n u r s e a n d th e front m a in ta in e d by a d octo r i s g r e a t ; many t h i n g s th a t are a c c e p t a b l e for n u r s e s a r e infra dignitatem for d o c to rs . Some m e d ica l p e o p l e h a v e felt th a t a n u r s e 'u n d e r - r a n k e d ' fo r th e t a s k of a d m in is te r in g a n e s t h e s i a and th a t d o c t o r s ' o v e r - r a n k e d ; ’ were th e re an e s t a b l i s h e d s t a t u s midw ay b e tw e e n n u r s e and doctor, an e a s i e r so lu tio n to th e p roblem co uld p e r h a p s be found. 2 S im ila d y , had t h e C a n a d i a n Army h ad a rank h alfw ay betw een lie u te n a n t and c a p t a i n , two and a h a l f p i p s i n s t e a d of two or th re e , then D ental Corp’s c a p t a i n s , many of them of a tow e th n ic origin, c ou ld h a v e b e e n g iv e n a rank th a t would p e r h a p s hav e been more s u i t a b l e in the e y e s of t h e Army than the c a p t a i n c i e s they w ere a c t u a l l y giv en. I do n o t m ean h ere to s t r e s s t h e p o in t of view of a formal o r g a n i z a t i o n o r a s o c i e t y ; th e in d iv id u a l, a s so m e o n e who p o s s e s s e s a lim ite d r a n g e o f s ig n - e q u ip m e n t, m ust a l s o m ake u n happy c h o i c e s . T h u s , >in the c r o ftin g com munity s tu d i e d by J S e e t h e thorough t r e a tm e n t of t h i s pr o b le m io Dan C . L o r t i e , ‘ D o c t o r s Without P a t i e n t * : T h e A n e s t h e s i o l o g i s t , a N ew M edical S p e c i a l t y Un p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r ’s t h e s i s , D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o , 1950. S e e a l s o Mark Murphv*s tliree -p art P r o f i l e o f Dr. R o v e n s t i n e , 1 A n e s t h e s i o l o g i s t The New Y o rke r. O c t o b e r 25, N o v e m b e r 1, a n d Novem b er 8, 1947. ? l r s h o u l d be a d d e d t h a t in s o m e h o s p i t a l s t h e in tern and t h e m e d i c a l s t u d e n t p erfo rm t a s k s th at are b e n e a t h a d o c t o r a n d a b o v e a n u r s e . P re s u m a b l y su c h t a s k s d o n o t r e q u ire a l arg e amount o f e x p e r ie n c e an d p r a c t i c a l trainin g» for w hile t h is i n t e r m e d ia t e s t a t u s o f d o c t o r -i n - t ra i n i n g » i s a p e r m a n e n t pare of h o s p i t a l s , a l l t h o s e who h o ld it do so tem p o rarily . 18 th e writer, 'h o s t s o fte n marked the v is i t of a friend by offering him a dram o f s p i r i t s , a g l a s s of wine, so m e (home-made) brew, o r a cup of te a . T h e h ig h e r the rank or temporary ce rem o n ia l s t a t u s of th e v is ito r, the more lik e ly he w as to r e c e iv e an offer in g n ea r t h e s p i r i t s end o f th e continuum. Now o n e problem a s s o c i a t e d with t h i s range o f s ig n -eq u ip m en t w a s th a t som e c r o f te r s c o u ld not afford to k e e p a b o ttle of s p i r i t s a v a ila b le , so th a t w ine tended to b e th e most indulg ent g e s tu r e th e y c ould employ. But p e r h a p s a more common d ifficu lty w as th e f a c t th a t c e r ta in v i s i t o r s , g ive n th e ir perm anent and temporary s t a t u s a t th e tim e, o u tra n k e d one pota b le and under-ran ked th e n ex t on e in line . T h e r e w a s often a d a n g e r th a t th e v i s i t o r would f e e l j u s t a l i t t l e affronted or, on the oth e r hand, th a t th e h o s t ’s c o s t l y a n d lim ite d sig n equipm ent would b e m is u s e d . In our middle c l a s s e s a sim ila r s it u a ti o n a r i s e s when a h o s t e s s h a s to d ec id e w h eth e r or not to u s e the good s il v e r , o r w hich w ould b e the more a p p r o p r ia te to wear, her b e s t afterno on d r e s s or her p l a i n e s t ev e n in g gown. [ h a v e s u g g e s t e d th a t s o c ia l front c a n be d iv id e d into tr a d itio n a l p a r ts , suc h a s s e ttin g , a p p e a r a n c e , an d manner, an d th a t ( s i n c e different r o u tin e s may be p r e s e n te d from behind the sa m e front) we may not find a p e rfe c t fit b e tw e en the s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r of a perform ance and the gene ral s o c i a l i z e d g u is e in w hich it a p p e a r s to us. T h e s e two f a c ts , ta k e n to g e th er, le ad u s to a p p r e c ia te th a t ite m s in the s o c ia l front of a p a r tic u la r rou tin e are not only found in the s o c i a l fronts of a whole range o f r o u tin e s but a l s o th a t th e whole range of r o u tin e s in w hich one item of sign equipm ent i s found will differ from th e ra n g e of r o u tin e s in which an o th er item in the s a m e s o c i a l fro nt will be found. T h u s , a la w y e r may talk to a c l ie n t in a s o c ia l s e ttin g th a t he e m ploys only for th is pu rp o se (or for a stu d y ), but th e c l o t h e s he w e a r s on su c h o c c a s i o n s , 'and which are s u i t a b l e for suc h o c c a s i o n s , he w ill a l s o employ, with equal su ita b ility , .at d inne r with c o l l e a g u e s and at the th e a tr e with h is wife. Simil arly, t h e p r in ts th a t hang on h i s wall and the c a r p e t on h is floor may be found in d o m e s tic s o c i a l e s ta b l is h m e n ts . Of c o u r s e , in h ighly cerem o nial o c c a s i o n s , se ttin g , manner, a n d a p p e a r a n c e may all be r e la tiv e ly unique and s p e c if ic , u s e d only for per form a nce s of a s in g l e ty p e of routine, but su c h e x c l u s i v e u s e of sign equipm ent i s the e x c e p tio n rath er than the rule. Dramatic Realization While in the p r e s e n c e of o th e rs , the in d iv id u al ty p ic a lly i n f u s e s h is a c tiv i ty with s i g n s which d ra m a tic a lly h ig hlight an d portray confirm atory f a c ts th a t might o th e rw is e rem ain un- ap p a re n t or o b s c u r e . F o r if th e in d iv id u a l’s a c tiv ity i s to 19 becom e s ig n i f i c a n t to o th e r s , 'he must m o b il iz e h i s a c tiv i ty so th a t it w ill e x p r e s s during the interaction w hat h e w i s h e s to convey. In f a c t, t h e perform er may b e r e q u ir e d n o t only to e x p r e s s h i s c l a im e d c a p a c i t i e s d uring t h e in te r a c t io n but a l s o to do so d u ring a s p l i t s e c o n d in t h e in te r a c t io n . T h u s, if a b a s e b a ll um pire i s to g iv e th e im p r e s s io n t h a t he i s su r e o f h is ju d g e m en t, he m ust forgo the moment o f thoug ht w hich m ight m ake him su re of h i s ju d g e m e n t; h e must give an i n s t a n t a n e o u s d e c i s i o n so th a t th e a u d i e n c e will b e s u r e th a t h e i s s u r e o f h i s jud g e m en t. 1 It may be n o te d th a t in th e c a s e o f s o m e s t a t u s e s dram a tiz a t io n p r e s e n t s no problem , s in c e som e of th e a c t s w hich are in s t r u m e n ta lly e s s e n t i a l for th e c o m p letio n o f th e c o r e ta s k of th e s t a t u s are a t th e sam e tim e w onderfully a d a p te d , from the p o in t of view o f c o m m u n ic atio n , a s m e a n s o f v ividly c o n v e y in g th é q u a l i t i e s and a t t r i b u t e s c la im e d by t h e perform er. The r o l e s o f p r i z e f i g h t e r s , s u r g e o n s , v i o l i n i s t s , a n d p o lic e m e n are c a s e s in p oint. T h e s e a c t i v i t i e s a llo w for so much d r a m a tic s e l f - e x p r e s s i o n th a t e x e m p la ry p r a c t i o n e r s —w h eth e r re a l or f i c t i o n a l —becom e fam o us and are g iven a s p e c i a l p la c e in the c o m m ercially o rg a n iz e d p h a n t a s i e s o f th e natio n . In many c a s e s , h ow ever, d r a m a tiz a tio n o f o n e 's work d o e s c o n s t i t u t e a problem . An il l u s t r a t i o n o f t h i s may be c ite d from a r e c e n t stu d y by E d ith L e n t z , w here th e m e d ica l n u rs in g s t a f f in a h o s p ita l i s shown to have a problem th a t th e s u r g ic a l n u rsin g s t a f f d o e s no t h a v e : T h e t h i n g s which a n u r s e d oes for p o s t - o p e r a t i v e p a t i e n t s on th e su r g i c a l floor a r e freq u e n tly of r e c o ^ n iz a b l e im p o rta n c e , even to p a t i e n t s who a r e s t r a n g e r s t o h o s p i t a l a c t i v i t i e s . Fo r e x a m p le , th e p a r i e n t s e e s h i s n u r s e c h a n g i n g b a n d a g e s , s w in g i n g o rt h o p e d i c f ra m e s into pla c e , and can r e a lise that th e s e are purposeful a c tiv itie s. E ven if s h e c a n n o t be a t h i s s i d e , he c a n r e s p e c t h e r p u r p o s e f u l a c t i v i t i e s . M e d ical n u r s i n g i s a l s o hig hly s k i l l e d work . . . . The p h y s ic ia n 's d i a g n o s i s m u st r e s t upon ca r e f u l o b s e r v a t i o n of sy m p t o n s o v e r tim e w here t h e s u r g e o n 's a r e in la r g e r p a r t d e p e n d e n t on v i s i b l e t h i n g s . T h e l a c k of v i s i b i l i t y c r e a t e s p r o b l e m s on the m e d i c a l . A patient will s e c h i s n u r s e s t o p a t the n e x t bed a n d c h a t for a moment o r two with t h e p a t i e n t t h e r e . He d o e s n ’t k now chae s h e i s o b s e r v i n g t h e s h a l l o w n e s s of the b r e a th in g an d c o lo r an d t o n e of the sk i n . He t h i n k s s h e i s j u s t v i s i t i n g . So, a l a s , d o e s h i s family who may t h ereu po n d e c i d e t h a t t h e s e n u r s e s a r e n ' t very i m p r e s s i v e . If th e n u r s e s p e n d s m ore time «u t h e n e x t bed chan a t h i s own, t h e p a t i e n t may feel s l i g h t e d . . . • T he n u r s e s a r e “ w a s t i n g r i m e 0 u n l e s s they a r e d a r t i n g ab ou t d oin g so m e v i s i b l e t h i n g s u c h a s a d m i n i s t e r i n g h y p o d e r m i c s . 2 S im ilarly, we find c h a t.th e p ro p rie to r o f a s e r v i c e e s t a b l is h m e n t may find it d iffic u lt to d r a m a tiz e w hat i s a c tu a lly b e in g done * S ee B a b e P i n e l l t , a s told t o J o e King. Mr Ump ( P h i l a d e l p h i a : W es tm in s ter P r e s s , 1953), p . 75. 2 E d ith L e n c 2 " A C o m p arison of M edical an d S u rg ical F l o o r s * 1 (Mim eo: New York S ta r e School of I n d u s t r i a l a nd L a b o u r R e l a t i o n s , C o r n e ll Uni v e r s i t y , 1954), p p . 2-3. for c l i e n t s b e c a u s e t h e c l i e n t s ca n not " s e e ” t h e overh e ad c o s t s of th e s e r v i c e rendered them. T h u s trustw orthy under ta k e r s m ust ch a rg e a g re a t d e a l for th e ir high ly v is i b le p ro d u ct— a coffin th a t h a s been transform ed into a c a s k e t —b e c a u s e many of th e other c o s t s of c o n duc ting a funeral, a r e not o n e s th a t ca n be re a d ily d r a m a tiz e d . 1 M erchan ts, too, often find th a t they must cha rge hig h p r i c e s for th in g s that look intrin s i c a l l y e x p e n s iv e in order to c o m p e n s a te the e s ta b l is h m e n t for e x p e n s iv e t h in g s lik e in s u r a n c e , s la c k p erio d s, e tc ., that never a p p e a r before th e c u s to m e rs ’ e y e s. T h e problem of d ram a tiz in g o n e ' s work i n v o lv e s more than merely making i n v is ib le c o s t s v is ib le . T h e work th a t must be done by th o s e who fill c e r ta in s t a t u s e s i s often s o poorly d e s ig n e d a s an e x p r e s s io n o f a d e s ire d meaning, th a t if th e incum bent would d ram a tiz e th e c h a r a c t e r of h is role, 'h e must divert an a p p r e c ia b le am ount o f h is energy to do so. And t h i s a c tiv i ty d iv e rted to communication will o ften re q u ire different a t t r i b u t e s from th e o n e s which are being d ram atized. T h u s to furnish a h o u s e so that it will e x p r e s s sim ple, qu iet dignity, th e h o u s e h o ld e r may h a v e to r a c e to a u c tio n s a l e s , h a g g l e with a n tiq u e d e a le rs , an d doggedly c a n v a s s a ll th e lo c al s h o p s for proper w allp ap e r an d cu rta in m a te ria ls. To g iv e a rad io talk that will sound genuin ely informal, spon t a n e o u s , a n d r ela x ed , th e s p e a k e r may hav e to d es ig n h is s c r ip t with p a i n s ta k in g care, t e s t i n g o n e p h r a s e after another, in order to follow th e c o n te n t, lang uage, rhythm, and p a c e of everyday talk. 2 Similarly, a Vogue model, by her clo th in g , s ta n c e , and f ac ial e x p r e s s io n , i s a b le e x p r e s s iv e ly to portray a c u l tiv a te d u n d e rsta n d in g of the book s h e p o s e s in her h a n d ; but th o s e who troub le to e x p r e s s th e m s e lv e s s o ap p rop riately will h a v e very l i t t l e tim e left o v e r 'f o r reading. And so in d iv id u a ls often find t h e m s e lv e s with the dilemma of e x p r e s s io n versus a c tio n . T h o s e who hav e th e time and ta len t to perform a t a s k well may not, b e c a u s e of th is , h av e the tim e or ta le n t to make it apparenc that they are perform ing well. It may be s a i d th a t so m e o r g a n iz a ti o n s r e s o lv e t h is dilemma for t h e s e m em bers by d e le g a tin g th e dram a tic function to a s p e c i a l i s t who will s p e n d h is tim e e x p r e s s in g th e m eaning o f the ta s k and spend no tim e a c tu a lly doing it. If we a l te r our frame of referen c e for a moment and turn from a p a r tic u la r perform ance to th e in d iv id u a ls who p r e s e n t it, ' M a t e r i a l on the burial b u s i n e s s use d ' h r o n i h o u t t m s repo rt i s t ak en from a forthcoming d i s s e r t a t i o n on the f u n e t a l d irecto r by R o b e rt H a b e n s te in . I h av e a l s o drawn on Mr Hafcenstein's se m in ar rep o rt d e s c r i b i n g the u n d e r t a k e r ’s work a s th e s t a g i n g of a perfo rm ance. 2 John Hilton, " C a l c u l a t e d S p on caniety,” O xford B o o k o f E n g lish T a lk fOx ford : C laren do n P r e s s , 1953), p p . 399-404. 21 we c a n c o n s i d e r an in t e r e s t i n g fac t ab o u t th e round of d iffe ren t r o u tin e s which a n y group or c l a s s o f in d iv i d u a l s h e l p s to perform. When we e x a m in e a group or c l a s s , we find th a t the m em bers o f it tend to in v e s t th e ir e g o s primarily in c e r ta in r o u tin e s , g ivin g l e s s s t r e s s to th e o th e r o n e s w hich th e y p e r form. T h u s a p r o f e s s io n a l man may b e w illin g to t a k e a very m o d e st ro le in th e s t r e e t , in a shop, or in h i s home, but, in th e s o c ia l s p h e r e which e n c o m p a s s e s h i s d is p l a y o f p r o f e s s io n a l c o m p e te n c y , he w ill be much c o n c e rn e d to m ake an e f f e c tiv e sh ow in g. In m o b iliz in g h i s b eh a v io u r to m ake a show ing, he w ill be c o n c e r n e d not so much with th e full round of t h e d if fe r e n t r o u t i n e s he perform s but only w ith th e o n e from which h i s o c c u p a t io n a l r e p u ta tio n d e r iv e s . It i s upon t h i s i s s u e th a t so m e w rite r s h a v e c h o s e n to d is t in g u is h g ro u p s with a r i s t o c r a t i c • h a b i t s ( w h a te v e r their s o c i a l s t a t u s ) from th o se of m idd le-class character. T h e a r i s t o c r a t i c h ab it, •it h a s b een s a id , i s one th a t m o b il iz e s all t h e minor a c t i v i t i e s of l i f e w hich fall o u t s i d e th e s e r io u s s p e c i a l i t i e s of o th e r c l a s s e s a n d i n j e c t s in to t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s an e x p r e s s io n of c h a r a c t e r , pow er, and high rank. By w h a t Im portant a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s i s the y o u n g no blem an i n s t r u c t e d t o s u p p o r t th e d i g n i t y o f h i s rank , a n d t o r e n d e r h i m s e l f worthy of t h a t s u p e ri o r i t y o v e r h i s fellow-c iti z e n s , to w h ich the v ir tu e of h i s a n c e s t o r s h a d r a i s e d them ? I s i t by k n ow ledg e, by in d u s t r y , by p a t i e n c e , by s e l f - d e n i a l , or by virtu e o f any k i n d ? As a l l h i s words, a s a l l h i s m o tio n s are a t t e n d e d to, he l e a r n s an h a b i t u a l reg ard to every circu m s t a n c e o f ordinary b e h a v io u r , a nd s t u d i e s to perform all t h o s e s m a ll d u t i e s w ith t h e m o s t e x a c t p r o p ri e t y . A s h e is c o n s c i o u s o l how much h e i s o b s e r v e d , an d how much m ank ind arc d i s p o s e d t o favour ali h i s i n c l i n a t i o n s , he a c t s , upon t h e m o st i n d iff e r e n t o c c a s i o n s , with that, fre edom a n d e l e v a t i o n w hich t h e th o u g h t of t h i s n a t u r a l l y i n s p i r e s . H is air, h i s manner, h is d eportm ent, all m ark th at e l e g a n t , and g r a c e f u l s e n s e of h i s own su p e rio rity , w h i c h t h o s e who a r e bom to i nferio r s t a t i o n s c a n hard ly e v e r a r riv e a t . T h e s e are t h e a r t s by w hich he p r o p o s e s to m ake mankind more e a s i l y sub m it t o h i s au th o rity , a n d to go vern t h e i r i n c l i n a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to h i s own p l e a s u r e ; an d in t h i s h e i s se ldo m d i s a p p o i n t e d . T h e s e a r t s , s u p p o r t e d by rank a nd p re e m i n e n c e , a r e , upon ord in ary o c c a s i o n s , s u f f i c i e n t to govern the world. 1 If s u c h v irtu o si a c tu a lly e x i s t , th e y would p rovid e a s u i t a b l e group in w hich to s tu d y t h e t e c h n i q u e s by which a c t i v i t y i s tra n sfo rm e d into a show. Idealization It w a s s u g g e s t e d e a r l i e r th a t a p erform ance of a rou tin e p r e s e n t s through i t s front som e ra th e r a b s t r a c t c l a i m s upon th e a u d i e n c e , c l a im s th a t a r e lik e ly to be p r e s e n te d to them during th e p erfo rm an ce o f other r o u tin e s . T h i s c o n s t i t u t e s on e way in w hich a p erfo rm an ce i s , in a s e n s e , ' s o c i a l i s e d , ’ m oulded a n d m od ified to fic in to t h e u n d e r s ta n d in g an d e x p e c t a t i o n s l Adam Smith, The T h e o ry o f M oral S e n tim e n ts ( L o n d o n : Henry Bohn, 1853), p . 75. 22 o f t h e s o c ie ty in which it is prt-senred. V!'e c o n s id e r here an o th er im portant a s p e c t o f t h i s s o c ia liz a tio n p r o c e s s —the te n d e n c y for perform ers to offer th e ir o b s e r v e r s an im p re ssion th a t i s i d e a l i z e d in s e v e r a l different w ays. T h e notion th a t a perform ance p r e s e n t s an id e a l i z e d view o f th e s itu a tio n i s , o f c o u r s e , q u ite common. C o o l e y 's view may be ta k e n a s an i l l u s tr a ti o n : U we n e v e r cried to seem a little b e tte r than we ar e, how co uld we improve or ' t r a i n o u r s e l v e s from the o u t s i d e i n w a r d ? ' And the siituc i m p u lse to sh ow the world a better or i d e a l i z e d a s p e c t o f o u r s e l v e s fin ds an o r g a n iz e d e x p r e s s i o n in the v a r i o u s p r o f e s s i o n s and c l a s s e s , cacli of w hich h a s to som e e x t e n t a can t or pose» which i t s members lissom e u n c o n s c i o u s l y , for the m o st part, but w h ich h a s the effe ct o f ,t c o n s p i r a c y to work upon t h e c r e d u lity of (he r e s t of t h e world. T h e r e i s a c a n t not onl y of theology and of p hilanth ro py , bu t a l s o of law, m e d i c i n e , t e a c h i n g , e ven of s c i e n c c —p e r h a p s e s p e c i a l l y o f s c i e n c e , ju st now sin c e th e more u p a r tic u la r kind o f m erit i s r eco g n izcd a n d admired, the more it I s likely to be a s s u m e d by t h e u n w o r t h y . 1 T h u s , when t h e individual p r e s e n t s h im self before o th e rs, liis p erform ance will te n d to in c o rp o rate and exemplify th e o ffic ia lly a c c r e d i te d v a l u e s ot th e s o c ie t y , more so , in fact, limn d o e s h i s behavio ur a s a whole. To th e d e g r e e that a perform an ce h ig h lig h ts th e common o ffic ia l v a l u e s o f th e s o c ie t y in which it o c c u r s , >we may look upon it, in th e manner of Durkheim and 1<adcl iffe-Brown, a s a ce rem o n y —a s an e x p r e s s i v e reju v e n atio n and reaffirm ation of t h e moral v a l u e s of th e community. Furtherm ore, in so f a r a s the e x p r e s s iv e b ia s o f p e rfo rm a n c e s co m e s to be a c c e p t e d a s r e a lity , then th a t which i s a c c e p te d at th e moment a s re a lity will hav e some o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a c e le b ra tio n . To sta y in o n e ’s room aw ay from the p la c e where t h e party i s given, o r aw ay from where th e p r a c titio n e r a t t e n d s to h i s c l ie n t , i s to sta y aw ay from where r e a lity i s being perform ed. The world, in truth, i s a wedding. O ne of th e r ic h e s t s o u r c e s of d a ta on th e p r e s e n ta tio n of id e a li z e d p e rfo rm a n c e s i s th e lite r a tu r e on s o c ia l m obility. !Dn most s o c i e t i e s there s e e m s to be a major or general sy ste m of s tr a t if ic a tio n , and in m ost s tr a t if ie d s o c i e t i e s th e re i s an id e a liz a tio n of th e higher s tr a t a and some as p ira tio n on th e part of t h o s e in low p l a c e s to move to higher o n e s . (We m ust be careful to a p p r e c ia te that t h i s in v o lv e s not merely a d e s ir e for a p r e stig e fu l p la c e but a l s o a d e s ir e for a p la c e c l o s e to th e s a c r e d c e n tr e of t h e common v a l u e s of the so c ie ty .) Commonly we find that upward mobility in v o lv e s th e p r e s e n t atio n of proper p erform ances and that effo rts to move upward and e ffo rts to keep from moving downward a re e x p r e s s e d in te rm s of s a c r i f i c e s made for the m a in te n a n c e of front. O n c e 1 C h a r l e s II. C o o ley , Human .\a lu re tiad th e S n e ia l Order (New York- S crib n e r ’s , 1922), pp. 352-353. 23 t h e p ro p e r s ig n -eq u ip m en t h a s bee n o b ta in e d and fam iliarity g a in e d in t h e m an ag e m en t of it, then t h i s equipm ent c a n be u s e d to e m b e llis h and illu m in e o n e ’s daily p e rfo rm a n c e s w ith a fa v o u r a b le s o c ia l s ty le . P e r h a p s th e m ost im p o rta n t p i e c e o f s ig n equipm ent a s s o c i a t e d w ith s o c ia l c l a s s c o n s i s t s o f th e s t a t u s sy m b o ls through w hich m a te r ia l w e a lth i s e x p r e s s e d . A m erican s o c ie t y i s s im ila r to o t h e r s in t h i s r eg a rd but s e e m s to have been sin g l e d out a s a n e x tre m e e x a m p le o f w e a lth -o rie n te d c l a s s s t r u c t u r e —p e r h a p s b e c a u s e in A m erica th e l i c e n c e to em ploy sy m b o ls o f w ea lth an d fin a n c ia l c a p a c ity to do so a r e so w idely d is trib u te d . I n d ia n s o c i e t y , on th e other hand, ’h a s s o m e tim e s b e e n c i t e d n o t o n ly a s o n e in w hich m obility o c c u r s in te rm s o f c a s t e groups, not in d iv id u a ls , but a l s o a s o n e in w hich p e rf o rm a n c e s te n d to e s t a b l i s h favourable c l a i m s re g a rd in g n o n-m aterial v a l u e s . A r e c e n t stu d e n t o f India, for exa m ple , h a s s u g g e s t e d t h e follo w ing: T h e c a s t e 9ystem i s far from a r i g id s y s t e m in which t h e ' p o s i t i o n o f e a c h co m p on en t i s fixed for a i i tim e. Movement h a s a l w a y s been p o s s i b l e , an d e s p e c i a l l y s o in the middle r e g io n s o f t h e hier archy, A l o w c a s t e w a s a b l e , in a g e n e r a tio n o r two, to r i s e to a hi gher by a d o p t i n g v e g e t a r i a n i s m a nd t e e t o t a l ) sm, a n d by S a n s k r i t i z i n g i t s r i t u a l a n d p a n th e o n . In s h o r t , i t to ok o v er, a s far a s p o s s i b l e , the cu sco m sj r i t e s , a n d b e l i e f s of the B rah m in s, a n d the ado ptio n o f the B r a h m i m c w ay o f l ife by a lo w c a s t e se e m s to h av e b een fre quent, though t h e o r e t i c a l l y forb id den............. T h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e l o w e r c a s t e s to im ita te t h e h igher h a s been a p ow erfu l facto r i n - t h e s p r e a d o f S a n s k r i t i c r i tu a l a nd c u s t o m s , an d in t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of a c e r t a i n am ount o f c u ltu r a l uniformity, no t on ly th ro ug h ou t t h e c a s t e s c a l e but o v er the en tir e l e n g th and b read th of I n d ia . 1 In f a c t, of c o u r s e , «there a re many Hindu c i r c l e s w h o se m em bers a re much c o n c e r n e d with in j e c t i n g an e x p r e s s io n of w ealth, luxury, an d c l a s s s t a t u s in to t h e p erfo rm ance of their daily round a n d who think too l i t t l e o f a e s c e t i c purity to bother a f f e c tin g it. C o rrespo ndingly, there h a v e a l w a y s been in flu en tial g r o u p s in A m erica w h o se m em bers h a v e felt th a t some a s p e c t o f every p erfo rm an ce o u g h t to play down the e x p r e s s io n o f s h e e r w ealth in o rd er to f o ste r th e im p re ssio n th a t s ta n d a r d s reg a rd in g birth, c u ltu r e , or moral e a r n e s t n e s s a r e t h e o n e s th a t p r e v a il. P e r h a p s b e c a u s e of th e o r ie n t a tio n upward found in major s o c i e t i e s to d a y , we te n d to a s s u m e th a t th e e x p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s in a p erfo rm an ce n e c e s s a r i l y claim for th e performer a h ig he r c l a s s s t a t u s than might o th e r w is e b e a c c o r d e d him. For exam ple, • we a r e not s u r p r i s e d to le arn the follow ing d e t a i l s of p a s t d o m e s tic • p e r f o rm a n c e s in S c o tla n d : 1M . N . S r i n i v a s , R e lig io n an d S o c ie ty Among the C o o r g s of South India ( O xfo rd: Oxford U n iv e r s ity P r e s s , 1952), p. 30. 24 O n e t h in g i s fairly c e r t a i n : t h e a v e r a g e la ir d an d h i s family l i v e d far more fru gally in t h e ordinary way t h a n th ey di d when they w ere entertaining visitors. T h e y would r i s e to a grear o c c a s i o n a n d s e r v e d i s h e s r e m i n i s c e n t o f th e b a n q u e t s o f t h e m e d ie v a l n o b i l i t y ; but, lik e t h o s e s a m e n o b l e s , b etw een the f e s t i v i t i e s th ey would ‘ k e e p s e c r e t h o u s e , ' a s the s a y i n g u s e d t o be, a n d liv e on the p l a i n e s t o f fare . T h e s e c r e t w a s well gua rded. E ven E d w ard Bure, with a il h i s know l e d g e o f rhe H i g h l a n d e r s , found it v er y d if fic u lt to d e s c r i b e th e ir everyday m eals. All h e cou ld s a y d e f i n i t e l y w a s that w h en ev e r they e n t e r t a i n e d an E n g lis h m an t h e y pro vid ed far too much f o od ; “ a n d , " h e rem a rk e d , " i t h a s often b een s a i d they w ill r a n s a c k a l l t h e i r t e n a n t s r a t h e r than we s h o u l d th ink m ean ly of t h e i r h o u s e k e e p i n g ; but 1 h a v e h e a r d i t from many whom t h e y h a v e e m p l o y e d ............. t h a t , alth o u g h th ey h a v e been a t t e n d e d a t d in ner by five or s ix s e r v a n t s , y e t , with all t h a t s t a t e , they h a v e often d i n e d upon o a t m e a l varied s e v era l w a y s , p i c k l e d herring , or o th e r s u c h c h e a p an d i n d ifferen t d i e t ." 1 In fact, how ever, many c l a s s e s of p e r s o n s have had many d ifferent r e a s o n s for e x e r c is i n g s y s t e m a tic m odesty and for u nderp la y in g any e x p r e s s i o n s of w ea lth , sp ir itu a l stre n g th , or self-respect. T h e igno rant, s h i f t l e s s , h a p p y-go-lucky manner which N e g r o e s in the Southern S t a t e s so m e tim e s felt o blig e d to a f f e c t d uring in te r a c tio n with w h i t e s i l l u s t r a t e s how a perform ance ca n play up ideal v a l u e s which a c c o r d to the perform er a lower p o sitio n than he co v e rtly a c c e p t s for him s e l f . 2 I h a v e been told by S h e tla n d e r s th a t theic g ra n d f a th e rs u s e d to refrain from improving t h e a p p e a r a n c e of th e c o t ta g e le sc th e la ir d ta k e suc h im p rov em ents a s a sig n th a t in c r e a s e d r e n t s could be e x t r a c te d from them. A th ir d exam ple may be q uoted from a r e c e n t stu d y o f t h e junk b u s i n e s s , in which d ata are p r o v id ed on th e kind o f im p re ssio n th a t p r a c t i t i o n e r s feel i t i s o p p o rtu n e for them to fo ster. . . . . t h e junk p e d d l e r i s v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d in k e e p i n g information a s to t h e tr u e f in a n c ia l v a l u e o f j u n k ' from t h e g eneral p u b l i c . He w i s h e s t o p e r p e t u a t e the myth t h a t junk i s v a l u e l e s s an d t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l s who d e a l in i t ar e down a n d o u t ’ an d sho uld be p i t i e d . 3 In a s e n s e su c h i m p r e s s i o n s a re i d e a li z e d , too, for if th e perform er i s to b e s u c c e s s f u l h e m u st offer th e kin d of s c e n e th a t r e a l i z e s t h e o b s e r v e r s ’ extrem e s t e r e o t y p e s o f h a p l e s s pov erty. * ‘ Marjorie P l a n t , T h e D o m e s tic L ife o f S c o tla n d in th e E ig h te e n th C en tu ry ( E d i n b u r g h : Edin burgh U n iv e r sity P r e s s , 1952), pp. 96-97. 2 A m odem v e r s i o n of t h i s m a s q u e r a d e i s d e s c r i b e d by C h a r l e s J o h n s o n , P a tte r n s o f N eg ro S eg reg a tio n (N ew Y o r k : Harper B t o s ., 1943), p. 2 7 3 : 'W h e re th ere i s a c t u a l c o m p e titio n a b o v e the u n s k i l l e d l e v e l s for jo b s u s u a l l y tho ug h t of a s 1w h ite j o b s ' so m e N e g r o e s w ill o f th e i r own c h o i c e a c c e p t sym bols of lo w er s t a t u s w hile perform ing work of h ig h e r ra nk. T h u s a s n i p p in g c lerk will w e a r o v e r a l l s a n d a c c e p t t h e pay a n d t i t l e of a p o r t e r ; a clerk will t a k e the t i t l e an d p a y of a m e s s e n g e r ; a n u r s e w ill perm it h e r s e l f to b e c a l l e d a d o m e s t i c ; a n d a c h i r o p o d i s t w ill e n t e r the h o m e s o f w h ite p e r s o n s by th e b a c k d o o r .’ 3 1. B. R a lp h , ' T h e Ju n k B u s i n e s s a n d th e J u n k P e d d l e r ' ( U np u blish ed M.A. R e p o rt, D ep artm en t o f S o cio lo g y , U n i v e r s i t y of C h i c a g o , 1950), p. 26 . A s i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f su c h r o u t i n e s th ere are p e r h a p s n o n e with s o much s o c i o l o g i c a l char m a s the p erfo rm an ce m a i n t a i n e d by s t r e e t b e g g a r s . In Western S o c ie ty , ho wever, s i n c e M ayhew’s tim e, t h e s c e n e s t h a t b e g g a r s 25 I f an in d iv id u a l i s to give e x p r e s s io n to id e a l s t a n d a r d s during h i s p erform ance, th e n h e will h a v e to forgo or c o n c e a l a c tio n w hich i s i n c o n s i s t e n t with t h e s e s t a n d a r d s . When t h i s in a p p ro p r ia te c o n d u c t i s i t s e l f s a t i s f y i n g in som e way, a s i s often t h e c a s e , th e n o n e commonly f in d s ir in d u lg e d in s e c r e t l y , so th a t , in a s e n s e , th e perform er i s a b l e to forgo h i s c a k e an d e a t i t too. F o r e x a m p le , in our own s o c ie t y we find th a t eig h t- y e a r -o ld c h ild re n claim la c k of i n t e r e s t in th e te le v i s io n program m es th a t a r e d ir e c te d to five- an d six - y e a r -o ld s , but S o m etim es s u r r e p tit io u s ly w atch them. 1 We a ls o find th a t m id d l e - c l a s s h o u s e w i v e s so m e tim e s e m p lo y —in a s e c r e t and s u r r e p tit io u s w ay—c h e a p s u b s t i t u t e s for co ffee , ic e cream , or b u tte r ; in t h i s way th e y can s a v e money, or effort, or time, and s t i l l m ain ta in an im p r e s s io n th a t th e food they s e r v e i s of high q u a lity . 2 T h e sam e women may l e a v e The Saturday Evening Post on t h e i r lin in g room e n d - ta b le but k e e p a copy o f True Romance ( " I t ' s so m e th in g the c l e a n in g woman must h a v e le f t a r o u n d ” ) c o n c e a le d in th e ir bedroom. 3 It h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t th e sa m e so rt of beh aviour, which we may refer to a s ‘ s e c r e t c o n s u m p t i o n ’, ca n be found am ong the H indus. T h e y conform to a i i th eir c u s t o m s , w h i l e t h e y are s e e n , but th ey a r e n o t s o s c r u p u l o u s when in t h e i r r e tire m e n t. 4 I h a v e been c r e d ib ly informed t h a t so m e Brah am s in sm a ll c o m p a n i e s , h a v e g o n e very s e c r e t l y to t h e h o u s e s of S u d ra s whom th ey c o u ld dep end on, to p a r t a k e o f m eat an d stro ng l i q u o rs , w hich they in d u lg e d in w ithout scruple. s s t a g e s e e m to h a v e d e c l i n e d in d r a m a tic m erit. T o d a y we h e a r l e s s of t h e ’c l e a n fam ily d o d g e ' in w hich a fam ily a p p e a r s in ta tte r e d but in c r e d i b l y c l e a n c l o t h e s , t h e f a c e s of t h e c h i l d r e n g l i s t e n i n g from a l a y e r of s o a p t h a t h a s b e e n p o l i s h e d w ith a s o f t cioch. We n o lo n g e r s e e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e s i n which a h a l f -n a k e d man c h o k e s o v e r a dirty c r u s t of b r e a d t h a t he i s a p p a r e n tly to o w e a k to sw allo w , or the s c e n e i n which a t a t t e r e d m an c h a s e s a sp a rro w from a p i e c e o f bread, w i p e s the m orsel s l o w l y on h i s c o a t - s l e e v e , a n d , a p p a r e n d y o b l i v i o u s co the a u d i e n c e t h a t i s now ar ound him, a t t e m p t s to e a t it. R are , too, h a s become t h e * a s h a m e d b e g g a r 1 who m eek ly im p lo re s w ith h i s e y e s w h at h i s d e l i c a t e s e n s i b i l i t i e s a p p a r e n t l y p r e v e n t him from s a y i n g . I n c i d e n t a l l y , the s c e n e s p r e s e n t e d by b e g g a r s h a v e b een v a r io u sly c a l l e d , in E n g lis h , g r ifts , d o d g e s , l a y s , r a c k e t s , l u r k s , p i t c h e s , a n d c a p e r s —p r o v i d in g u s w ith rerm s w e l l s u i t e d to d e s c r i b e p e r fo r m a n c e s t h a t h ave g r e a t e r l e g a l i t y a n d l e s s a r t . F o r d e t a i l s on b e g g a r s s e e H en ry Mayhew, L ondon L a b o u r a nd th e L o n d o n P oor (4 v o l s . ; L o n d o n : Griffin, Bohn), I (1861), p p . 415-417, and IV (1862), pp. 404-438. * U n p u h lish e d r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s of S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , I n c . , C h i c a g o . I am g r atefu l t o S o c ia l R e s e a r c h , In c., for p e r m i s s i o n to u s e t h e s e an d other o f t h e i r d a t a i n t h i s r ep o rt. 2 U n p u b lish e d r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s o f S o c ia l R e s e a r c h , Inc. ^ R e p o r t e d by P r o f e s s o r W. L . Warner o f t h e U niversity of C h ica go , in s e m in a r, 1951. V b,b* j - A - D u b o i s , C h a ra cter, M anners, an d C u sto m s o f the P e o p le o f In d ia (2 v o l s . ; P h i l a d e l p h i a ': M 'C arey & Son, 1818), I, p. 235. 5 Ib id ,, p . 237. 26 T h e s e c r e t u s e of in t o x i c a t i n g drink i s s t i l l l e s s uncommon th an t h a t of i n t e r d i c t e d food, b e c a u s e it i s l e s s d ifficu lt to c o n c e a l. Yet i t i s a thing un heard of to m eet a Brahmin drunk in p u b l i c . 1 It may be a d d e d that r e c e n tly th e K in se y r e p o r ts have added new im p e tu s to the study a n d a n a l y s i s o f s e c r e t co nsum p tion. 1 It i s im portan t to note chat when an in d iv id u a l o f f e r s a perform ance h e ty p ic a lly c o n c e a l s so m e th in g more than in a p p r o p r ia te p l e a s u r e s a n d ec o n o m ie s. Some of t h e s e m a tte r s for c o n c e a lm e n t may be s u g g e s te d here. F i r s t , we s o m e tim e s find t h a t in ad d itio n to s e c r e t p l e a s u r e s and ec o n o m ie s, the p erfo rm er may b e e n g a g e d in a p ro fitab le form of a c tiv i ty th a t i s c o n c e a le d from h i s a u d ie n c e an d th a t i s in co m p atib le with th e view o f h is a c tiv ity which he h o p e s they will obtain. T h e model h e r e i s to be found with h ila r io u s c la r ity in the cig a r-s to re -b o o k ie -jo in r, but some th in g o f th e sp irit o f t h e s e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s can be found in many p la c e s . A s u rp risin g number of w orkers seem to ju s t if y th e ir jo b s to t h e m s e l v e s by th e to o ls that can be sto len , or t h e fo o d -s u p p lie s that c a n be r e s o ld , or th e tr a v e llin g that c a n be en jo y e d on com pany tim e, o r the propoganda th a t can be d istrib u te d , or th e c o n t a c t s th a t can be made a n d properly in flu e n c e d , e tc . 3 In a ll su c h c a s e s , p la c e o f work an d o ffic ia l a c tiv ity come to be a kind o f s h e ll which c o n c e a l s t h e s p ir ite d life of the performer. S econdly, we find that erro rs an d m i s t a k e s are often c o r r e c te d befo re th e p erform ance t a k e s p la c e and, at th e s a m e tim e, te l l - t a l e s i g n s th a t errors have been m ade a n d c o rre c te d are t h e m s e lv e s c o n c e a le d . In t h i s way an im p re ssio n of in f a l lib ili ty , so im portant in many p r e s e n t a t i o n s , may be m a in ta in e d . T h ere i s a fam ous remark th at d o c to rs bury th e ir m i s ta k e s . A nother exam ple i s found in a r e c e n t d is s e rta tio n on s o c ia l in te r a c tio n in th r e e governm ent o f fic e s , w hich s u g g e s t s that o f f ic e r s d is l ik e d d ic ta t in g r e p o r ts to a ste n o g ra p h e r b e c a u s e they lik e d to go back over their r e p o r ts 1 D u bo is, op. c i t ., p. 238. 2 A s Adam Smith s u g g e s t e d , op. c i t., p. 88, v i r tu e s a s w ell a s v i c e s may be c o n c e a l e d : ' V a i n men often give t h e m s e l v e s a i r s of a f a s h i o n a b l e p r o flig a c y , which, in t h e i r h e a r t s , they d o n o t approve of, a n d of w h ich , p e r h a p s , th ey are r e a l l y n o t gu ilty . T h e y d e s i re to be p r a i s e d for what t h e y t h e m s e l v e s do n o t think p r a ise w o r th y , an d are a s h a m e d of u n f a s h io n a b le v i r tu e s , w h ich th ey s o m e ti m e s p r a c t i s e in s e c r e t , and for which they have s e c r e t l y some d e g r e e o f r e a l v e n e r a t i o n .' 3 Two r e c e n t s t u d e n t s of t h e s o c i a l s e r v i c e worker s u g g e s t t h e term 'o u t s i d e r a c k e t ' to re fe r to s e c r e t s o u r c e s o f in com e a v a i l a b l e to th e C h i c a g o P u b l i c C a s e Worker. S ee Earl Bogdanoff a n d Arnold G l a s s , T h e S o c io lo g y o f th e P u b lic C a s e Worker in a n Urban A rea, u n p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r 's R e p ort, D ep artm en t o f S o cio lo g y , U n iv er sity of C h i c a g o , 1953- 27 a n d correcc th e f la w s b efo re a s te n o g ra p h e r , l e t a l o n e a su p e rio r, sa w th e re p o r ts . 1 T h ird ly , in th o s e in t e r a c t i o n s w h ere th e in d iv id u a l p re s e n t s a p roduct to o th e rs, h e will tend to show them only t h e en d -p ro d u ct, an d they will be le d i d c o judging him on th e b a s i s of s o m e th in g th a t h a s been f in is h e d , p o lis h e d , a n d packaged. In som e c a s e s , if v ery l i t t l e effort w a s a c tu a lly r e q u ir e d to c o m p le te th e o b je c t, t h i s f a c t will be c o n c e a le d . In o th e r c a s e s , it will b e t h e long, t e d i o u s h o u rs of lonely la b o u r th a t w ill be h id den. F o r exam ple, th e u rbane s ty le a f f e c t e d in so m e s c h o la r ly b o o k s can b e in s t r u c tiv e ly com pared with th e f e v e r is h drudgery th e a u th o r may hav e end u re d in o r d e r to c o m p lete th e in d e x on tim e an d the s q u a b b l e s h e may h a v e h a d w ith h i s p u b lis h e r in o rd er to i n c r e a s e th e s i z e o f the f irs t l e t t e r o f h i s l a s t nam e a s it a p p e a r s on the c o v e r of h i s book. A fourth d is c r e p a n c y betw een a p p e a r a n c e s and overall r e a lity may be c i t e d . We find th a t there are many p e r f o rm a n c e s which c o u ld not hav e bee n g ive n had not ca sk s been done w hich w ere p h y s i c a l l y u n c le a n , s e m i- ille g a l , c ru e l, and de grading in ocher w a y s ; but t h e s e d is t u r b in g fac es are seldom e x p r e s s e d during a p erfo rm an ce . In H u g h e s ’ cerm s, we te n d to c o n c e a l from our a u d i e n c e all e v i d e n c e of ' d i r t y work,’ w h e th e r we do t h i s work in p r iv a te or a l l o c a t e co a servanc, co th e im p e rso n al m arket, co a le g itim ace s p e c i a l i s t , or co an il l e g i t i m a t e one. C l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d with th e notion o f dircy work i s a fifth d is c r e p a n c y becween a p p e a r a n c e and ac tu a l accivicy. We fin d chat if d ie accivicy of an in d iv id u a l i s co embody s e v e r a l id e a l s c a n d a rd s, th e n in order to make a good show ing i t i s lik e ly th a t some of t h e s e s c a n d a r d s will be s u s t a i n e d in p u b lic by che privace s a c r i f i c e of so m e of che ochers. Ofcen, of c o u r s e , che performer will s a c r i f i c e th o s e s t a n d a r d s w hose l o s s can be c o n c e a l e d and will m ake ch is s a c r if ic e in order co main'cain th o s e s t a n d a r d s w hose i n a d e q u a te applicacion c ou ld not be c o n c e a le d . T h u s , if a s e r v ic e i s judged on che b a s i s of s p e e d a n d q u a lity , qualicy i s lik e ly co fall before s p e e d b e c a u s e poor quality ca n be c o n c e a l e d but not slo w serv ice. Similarly, if a c ce n d an ts in a mental ward are to m aintain order an d ac th e sa m e tim e noc hit paciencs, an d if t h i s com binacion of sc a n d a rd s i s difficulc co maincain, chen t h e unruly pacienc may b e ' n e c k e d ' wich a wet cowel and c h o k e d into s u b m issio n in a way chac l e a v e s no v is i b le e v i d e n c e o f miscreacmenc. A b s e n c e o f miscreacmenc can be l B lau , o p. c i t ., p. 184. 28 fak ed, not order. 1 Here i t would be in c o rre c t to be too c y n ic a l. Often we find th at if the p rin c ip a l id e a l a i m s of an o rg a n iz a tio n are to be a c h ie v e d , then it will be n e c e s s a r y at tim e s to b y p a s s mom entarily o th e r i d e a l s of the o rg an iz atio n , w hile m a in ta in in g th e im p re ssio n th a t t h e s e o th e r i d e a l s are s t i l l iti force. In s u c h c a s e s , a s a c r i f i c e i s made not for th e m ost v i s i b l e id e a l but rath e r for the most le g itim a te ly im portant one. 2 F in a lly , we find perform ers ■often f o s te r the im p re ssio n th a t th e y had id e a l m o tiv e s for a c q u irin g the role in which th e y are perform ing, th a t th e y have id e a l q u a l if ic a tio n s for t h e role, an d th a t it w a s not n e c e s s a r y for them to su ffe r an y in d ig n i tie s , in s u l t s , an d h u m ilia tio n s, or make an y ta c it ly - u n d e rsto o d ' d e a l s , ' in o rd er to a c q u ire th e role. (While t h i s g en e ral im p re ssio n of s a c r e d com p arability betw een th e man an d h is job i s p e r h a p s most commonly fo ste re d by m em bers o f the higher p r o f e s s io n s , a sim ila r ele m e n t i s found in many o th e r fo ste re d i m p r e s s io n s . ) Reinforcing t h e s e id e a l i m p r e s s i o n s we find a kin d of ' r h e t o r i c of tr a in in g ,' w hereby labour unions, u n i v e r s i t i e s , tr a d e a s s o c i a t i o n s , and o th e r l i c e n s in g b o d ie s re q u ire p r a c t i t i o n e r s to a b s o rb a m y s t ic a l rang e and p e rio d of train in g , in p a rt to maintain a monopoly, but in part to f o s te r th e im p r e s s io n th a t th e l i c e n c e d p r a c titio n e r i s som eone s e t a p a r t from o th e r men. 3 And so we find that 1 R o be rt II.W illou gh by , T h e A tte n d a n t in th e S ta te M ental H o s p ita l (un p u b l i s h e d M a s t e r 's T h e s i s , D ep artm ent o f So cio lo gy , U n i v e r s i t y of C h ic a g o , 1953), p. 4 4 . Willoughby a d d s , pp. 45-46 : ' T h o s e r u l e s , r e g u l a t i o n s , a n d o r d e r s w hich a r e m o s t e a s i l y e n f o r c e d a r e t h o s e which l e a v e t a n g i b l e e v i d e n c e of hav ing b een e i t h e r o b e y e d or d i s o b e y e d , su c h a s r u l e s pe r ta in in g to the c l e a n i n g of the ward, lo ck in g d oors, the u s e of in t o x i c a t i n g l i q u o r s while on d u t y , t h e u s e o f r e s t r a i n t s , e tc . ’ 2 An il l u s t r a t i o n i s p r o vid ed in a r e c e n t p a p e r on t h e N a v y : C h a r l e s Hunt P a g e , ' B u r e a u c r a c y ’s O ther F a c e , ’ S o c ia l f o r c e s , XXV, p. 9 0 : ' T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (gro up -im p osed s e c r e c y ) i s nor e n t i r e l y a t t r i b u t a b l e , by a n y m e a n s , to the f ear of the m em ber s th at u n sa v o u ry e l e m e n t s w ill be brought to l i g h t . While t h i s fear a l w a y s p l a y s so m e role i n k eep in g o ff t h e reco rd t h e ’ i n s i d e p i c t u r e ’ of a n y bu re a u c r a c y , it i s to one of the f e a t u r e s of rhe informal st r u c t u r e i t s e l f that more im portance must be assigned. F o r the informal s tru ctu re _s e r v e s the very s i g n i f i c a n t ro le o f p rov id in g a ch a n n el o f circu m ven tio n of the formally p r e s c r i b e d r u l e s an d m e t h o d s o f pro c e d u r e . No o r g a n i z a t i o n f e e l s th a t it c a n afford to p u b l i c i z e t h o s e m e th o d s (by w hich ce r ta in p r o b le m s are so lv e d , it i s im po rtan t to n o te ) w hich arc a n t i t h e t i c a l to the o f fi c i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d an d , in t h i s c a s e , stro n g ly s a n c t i f i e d m eth o d s d e a r t o the t r a d i t i o n s of th e group. ’ 3 Anthony fteinle in, P h a rm acy a s a P r o fe s s io n in W isco n sin ( u n p u b lis h e d M aster's T h e s i s , D epartm en t of S ocio lo g y , U n iv e r sity of C h i c a g o , 1943), r e p o rts , p. 89, t h a t p h a r m a c i s t s fe el the f o u r y e a r u n i v e r sity c o u r s e re q u ire d for l i c e n s e is 'g o o d for t h e p r o f e s s i o n ' but t h a t some admit t h a t a few m onths of trainin g i s all th at i s re a lly n e e d e d . T h e Am er ican army during World War 11 i nn ocen tly t r e a t e d t r a d e s s u c h a s phar m acy and_ w a t c h - r e p a irin g in a pu rely in str u m e n ta l way and train ed e f f i c i e n t p r a c t i t i o n e r s in five or si x w e e k s to the horror of e s t a b l i s h e d m em bers of t h e s e tr a d e s . 29 clergym en g iv e th e im p re ssio n th a t they e n te r e d th e church b e c a u s e o f a c a ll o f fe lt v o c a tio n , in America te nding to c o n c e a l th e ir i n t e r e s t in moving up s o c i a l l y , in B rita in te nding to c o n c e a l th e ir i n t e r e s t in not moving to o far down. And ag ain, clergym en te n d to g iv e th e im p re ssio n th a t they h a v e c h o s e n th e ir cu rren t c o n g r e g a tio n b e c a u s e of w hat they c a n o ffe r it s p ir itu a lly and not, a s may in f a c t be the c a s e , b e c a u s e th e e l d e r s o ffe re d a goo d h o u s e or full paym ent o f moving expenses. S im ilarly, m edical s c h o o l s in Am erica te n d to rec ru it th eir s t u d e n t s partly on the b a s i s o f e t h n i c orig in s, an d c e r ta in ly p a t ie n t s , c o n s id e r t h i s fac to r in c h o o s in g th e ir d o c t o r s ; but in t h e a c tu a l in te r a c t io n betw e en d o c to r and p a tie n t the im p re ssio n i s a l lo w e d to d e v e lo p that th e d o ctor i s . a d octor b e c a u s e o f s p e c i a l a p t i t u d e s a s well a s s p e c ia l training . Sim ilarly, e x e c u t i v e s often p r o je c t an a ir o f com p e te n c y an d general g ra sp of t h e s it u a ti o n , blinding th e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s to the fact that they hold th e ir jo b s partly b e c a u s e th e y look lik e e x e c u t i v e s , not b e c a u s e th e y c a n work like e x e c u t iv e s . 1 P e rfo rm e rs may even attem pt to g iv e th e im p r e s s i o n th a t th e ir p r e s e n t p o is e a n d pro ficiency are s o m e th in g they h a v e a l w a y s h ad an d that they h a v e n e v e r had to fumble th e ir way through a le a r n in g period. I n te r e s tin g ly enough, when th e s ig n i f i c a n c e of unofficial q u a l i f i c a t i o n s b e c o m e s a s c a n d a l or p o litic a l i s s u e , then a few i n d iv i d u a ls who are o b tr u s iv e ly la c k in g in th e informal q u a l if ic a tio n s may be adm itted with fanfare and g ive n a highly v i s i b l e ro le a s e v i d e n c e o f fair p la y . An im p re ssio n of le g itim a c y i s t h u s c r e a te d . 2 I h a v e s u g g e s t e d th a t a performer te n d s to c o n c e a l or un derplay th o s e a c t i v i t i e s , f a c t s , an d m o tiv e s which a re in c o m p a tib le with an i d e a l i z e d v ersio n of h im s e lf and h is pro d u cts. In a d d itio n , a perform er often e n g e n d e r s in h i s a u d i e n c e th e b e lie f that h e i s r e la te d to them in a more id e al way than i s a l w a y s th e c a s e . Two gene ral i l l u s t r a t i o n s may be cited . ‘ S ee, for e x a m p le , P er rin S try ker, 'H o w E x e c u t i v e s G et J o b s , ’ F o rtu n e , A u g u s t, 1953, p. 1 8 2 : F e w e x e c u t i v e s r e a l i z e how c r i t i c a l l y im p ortant t h e i r p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e m ay b e to an em p lo y er. P l a c e m e n t e x p e r t Ann 11off o b s e r v e s th a t em p l o y e r s now se e m t o be lo ok ing for an i d e a l ’ H o lly w o o d t y p e . ’ O ne com pany r e j e c t e d a c a n d i d a t e b e c a u s e he h ad ' t e e t h t h a t were to o s q u a r e ’ a n d o t h e r s h a v e b een d i s q u a l i f i e d b e c a u s e th e ir e a r s s t u c k out, or they d rank a nd sm ok e d to o h e a v ily d u rin g an i n te r v ie w . R a c ia l an d r e l i g i o u s re q u i re m e n t s a l s o a r e often frankly s t i p u l a t e d by e m p l o y e r s . 1 2 S ee, for e x a m p l e , William K o rn h au ser, ‘ T h e N eg ro Union O f f i c i a l : A stud y o f S p o n s o r s h i p a n d C o n t r o l ,’ A m erican Jo u rn a l o f S o c io lo g y , LV11, p p. 443-452, and S cott Greer, ' S i t u a t e d P r e s s u r e s a nd F u n c tio n a l R ole of E t h n i c L ab o r L e a d e r s , ’ S o c ia l F o r c e s , XXXU, p p .4 1 - 4 5 . 30
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