Citizens’ Responses in Times of Crisis Edited by Christian Lahusen & Maria T. Grasso Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology Solidarity in Europe Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology Series Editors Carlo Ruzza Department of Sociology and Social Research University of Trento Trento, Italy Hans-Jörg Trenz Department of Media, Cognition and Communication University of Copenhagen Copenhagen, Denmark “Based on unique international survey data, this book shows us a much needed, and exceptionally detailed, picture of the solidaristic acts and ideas of Europeans in the context of pressing economic, cultural, and political challenges. A timely, insightful, and thought-provoking contribution to our understanding of the via- bility of solidarity as a cornerstone of social organization in Europe.” — Professor Wim van Oorschot, KU Leuven, Belgium “Solidarity in Europe is a timely book. Austerity measures, the inflow of refugees, and the rise of populism have placed considerable strain on European solidarity. This insightful book provides a rich and variegated picture of solidarity in Europe, and redresses false conceptions about solidarity and further addresses a key issue: our capacity to live together and to create social cohesion”. — Professor Florence Passy, University of Lausanne, Switzerland “A most timely empirical analysis of attitudes of solidarity in Europe! With a range of different indicators, it demonstrates national variations and common patterns of attitudes in eight countries and stimulates the reader to reflect on present chal- lenges for solidarity in general and particularly for the European Union.” — Professor Emeritus Steinar Stjernø, Oslo and Akershus University College of Applied Sciences, Norway Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology addresses contemporary themes in the field of Political Sociology. Over recent years, attention has turned increasingly to processes of Europeanization and globalization and the social and political spaces that are opened by them. These processes comprise both institutional-constitutional change and new dynamics of social transnationalism. Europeanization and globalization are also about changing power relations as they affect people’s lives, social networks and forms of mobility. The Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology series addresses linkages between regulation, institution building and the full range of societal repercussions at local, regional, national, European and global level, and will sharpen understanding of changing patterns of attitudes and behaviours of individuals and groups, the political use of new rights and opportunities by citizens, new conflict lines and coalitions, soci- etal interactions and networking, and shifting loyalties and solidarity within and across the European space. We welcome proposals from across the spectrum of Political Sociology and Political Science, on dimensions of citizenship; political attitudes and values; political communication and public spheres; states, communities, governance structure and political institutions; forms of political participation; populism and the radical right; and democracy and democratization. More information about this series at http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14630 Christian Lahusen • Maria T. Grasso Editors Solidarity in Europe Citizens’ Responses in Times of Crisis Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology ISBN 978-3-319-73334-0 ISBN 978-3-319-73335-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73335-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2018937649 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 This book is an open access publication. 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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Editors Christian Lahusen Department of Social Sciences University of Siegen Siegen, Germany Maria T. Grasso Department of Politics University of Sheffield Sheffield, UK v Results presented in this book have been obtained within the project European paths to transnational solidarity at times of crisis: Conditions, forms, role-models and policy responses (TransSOL). This project was funded by the European Commission under the Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 649435). The TransSOL consortium was coordinated by the University of Siegen (Germany), and was formed, additionally, by the Université de Genève (Switzerland), the Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques (France), the Glasgow Caledonian University (United Kindgom), the University Panepistimio Kritis (Greece), the University of Florence (Italy), the University of Warsaw (Poland) , the University of Copenhagen (Denmark), the University of Sheffield (United Kingdom), and European Alternatives Ltd (Germany and United Kingdom). We thank all the members of the TransSOL research consortium for their contributions to the project. A cknowledgements vii 1 Solidarity inEurope–European Solidarity: An Introduction 1 Christian Lahusen and Maria Grasso 2 Toward a New Conditionality of Welfare? Reconsidering Solidarity in the Danish Welfare State 19 Hans-Jörg Trenz and Maria Grasso 3 Solidarity Activism in Germany: What Explains Different Types and Levels of Engagement? 43 Johannes Kiess, Christian Lahusen, and Ulrike Zschache 4 Pulling Together or Pulling Apart? Solidarity in the Post- Crisis UK 73 Tom Montgomery, Simone Baglioni, Olga Biosca, and Maria Grasso 5 Solidarity Practices in Poland and Their Social Capital Foundations 103 Anna Kurowska and Maria Theiss c ontents viii CONTENTS 6 The Social and Political Dimensions of Solidarity in Italy 127 Nicola Maggini 7 Volunteering for Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Greece 169 Stefania Kalogeraki 8 Civic and Political Solidarity Practices in Switzerland 195 Eva Fernández G. G. 9 Trajectories of Solidarities in France Across Fields of Vulnerability 227 Manlio Cinalli and Maria Jimena Sanhueza 10 Solidarity in Europe: A Comparative Assessment and Discussion 253 Christian Lahusen and Maria Grasso Index 283 ix e ditors Maria T. Grasso holds a Chair in Politics and Quantitative Methods at the Department of Politics, University of Sheffield, UK. Her research focuses on political sociology and political engagement. She is the author of Generations, Political Participation and Social Change in Western Europe (2016). Her research has been published in British Journal of Political Science , European Journal of Political Research , Electoral Studies , Acta Politica, Work, Employment & Society , Mobilization , and other jour- nals. She has been awarded over £800,000 in research funding to date and is the principal investigator/work-package leader on two collaborative EU projects funded by the European Commission in the Horizon 2020 scheme: TransSOL on transnational solidarity in times of crisis and EURYKA on youth participation and inequalities. Christian Lahusen holds a Chair of Sociology at the Department of Social Sciences, University of Siegen, Germany. He studied sociology in Düsseldorf and Madrid, received his PhD from the European University Institute (Florence), and obtained his habilitation from the University of Bamberg. His research interests include social theories, political sociology, and the sociology of European societies and European integration. He has directed and participated in a number of national and international research projects on topics relating to contentious politics, civil society, and social exclusion, most of them with a European and comparative perspective. He was the coordinator of the TransSOL project (Horizon 2020). n otes on e ditors And c ontributors x NOTES ON EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS c ontributors Simone Baglioni is Professor of Politics in the Yunus Centre for Social Business and Health at Glasgow Caledonian University (GCU), UK. Before joining GCU he worked at academic institutions in Italy and Switzerland. His research interests focus on youth unemployment, civil society, social innovation, and social movements. Olga Biosca is Senior Lecturer at the Yunus Centre for Social Business and Health at Glasgow Caledonian University in the UK. She holds a PhD in Economics from the University of Sheffield and an MSc degree in Development Economics from the Autonomous University of Madrid, Spain. Biosca is co-investigator in the FinWell project funded by the Scottish government, examining the potential link between fair finance and health and well-being. Biosca is also a co-investigator on the TransSOL project and the Marie Sklodowska-Curie RISE project FAB-MOVE (For a Better Tomorrow: Social Enterprises on the Move). Manlio Cinalli is a research professor at CEVIPOF (CNRS—UMR 7048), Sciences Po Paris, France. He has delivered teaching and research in various leading universities and institutes across Europe and the US. He has published widely on citizenship and integration in international jour- nals, and he is also the author of Citizenship and the Political Integration of Muslims in France (Palgrave). His research draws on quantitative and qualitative methods. It is noticeable for having developed a multidisci- plinary approach combining contentious politics, network analysis, claim making, and public policy studies. He has many large grant awards that have contributed more than £2.5M of research funding to host institutions. Eva Fernández G. G. works as a research assistant at the Institute of Citizenship Studies of the University of Geneva, Switzerland. Previously, she worked for several years in the public health sector, primarily at the World Health Organization, and then at The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. Eva holds a degree in Political Science and Public Administration from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (2008) and an MSc in Environmental Sciences from the University of Geneva (2011). She is a Candoc at Department of Political Science and International Relations of the University of Geneva. xi NOTES ON EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Stefania Kalogeraki is Assistant Professor of Quantitative Methods in Sociology and Social Demography at the Department of Sociology, University of Crete, Greece. She holds a BSc in Statistics (1998), an MA in Sociology with Research Training with Distinction (2002), and a PhD in Sociology (2007, University of Reading, UK). She has participated in European projects (such as GGCRISI, LIVEWHAT, TransSOL, EURYKA) and been the principal investigator in Greek research projects. Her main research interests focus on questionnaire design, comparative social research, social demographic analysis, and mixed method designs. Johannes Kiess is a researcher at Siegen University, Germany, and employed in the EU Project EURYKA, focusing on political participation of youth and inequality. He received his MA from University of Leipzig; he has also studied at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba and recently was a visiting researcher at the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies, Cologne, and at Georgetown University, Washington DC. His PhD investigates the framing of the crisis by German social partners. He has published various articles, chapters, and books on right-wing extrem- ism, particularly focusing on attitudes, European sociology, and trade unions. Anna Kurowska is Assistant Professor at the Institute of Social Policy at the University of Warsaw, Poland. She holds a PhD in Social Policy (2010) and an MSc in Political Sciences with Distinction (2004, University of Warsaw) and in Economics (2007, Warsaw School of Economics). Her main research interests are in capability approach in social policy, work- family reconciliation, maternal employment, and comparative analysis of welfare states. She is involved in several international projects, including TransSOL, and leading two of them. Kurowska has had her work accepted in highly ranked journals, including Social Policy & Administration . For more information, visit orcid.org/0000-0002-3578-4517. Nicola Maggini is Research Fellow at the Legal Sciences Department of the University of Florence, Italy and a member of CISE (Italian Centre for Electoral Studies). He has published on Italian and international journals, including RISP-Italian Political Science Review , Journal of Contemporary European Research , Studia Politica-Romanian Political Science Review , Italian Politics and Society , and Czech Journal of Political Science . He is the author of Young People’s Voting Behaviour in Europe: A Comparative Perspective (Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), co-author of several book xii NOTES ON EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS chapters, and co-editor of volumes for the ‘Dossier CISE’ series. He is working on transnational solidarity issues for ‘TransSOL’ Horizon 2020 project. Tom Montgomery is a researcher on the TransSOL project based at Glasgow Caledonian University, UK. He holds an MA (Hons) in Politics from the University of Glasgow and an MSc in Political Research from the University of Strathclyde, and he is completing his PhD at the Yunus Centre for Social Business and Health at GCU, where he is examining the role of social innovation in addressing youth employment issues in Glasgow and the west of Scotland focusing on the impact of the political context on socially innovative organisations and the fragile labour markets navigated by young people. Maria Jimena Sanhueza is Research Fellow at Sciences Po Paris working in the research project “European Paths to Transnational Solidarity at Times of Crisis: Conditions, Forms, Role-models and Policy Responses (TransSOL)” funded by the European Commission. Previously, she worked on the project “Pathways to Power: The Political Representation of Citizens of Immigrant Origin in Seven European Democracies” funded by the French National Research Agency, the 2017 French Presidential Electoral Compass, and the Naval Postgraduate School (USA). Prior to joining Sciences Po, she worked as a project manager for Academics Stand Against Poverty, and as a consultant for Lawyers Without Borders. Maria Jimena’s research interests include comparative politics, institutions, polit- ical representation, and public opinion. Maria Theiss is Assistant Professor at the Institute of Social Policy, Warsaw University, Poland. Her research focuses on the issues of social citizenship, social capital, civic society, and the local level of social policy. She was the PI of the Polish team of the project LIVEWHAT and con- ducted a number of research studies in Poland, including ‘Local social citi- zenship—the example of childcare services’. She is an author and co-editor of four books on issues of poverty, social exclusion, and governance pro- cesses at the local level in Poland as well as articles and book chapters. Hans-Jörg Trenz is Professor at the Centre for Modern European Studies at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark and Research Professor at ARENA, Centre for European Studies, University of Oslo, Norway. His main fields of interests are the emergence of a European public sphere and of European civil society, European civilisation and identity, migration and xiii NOTES ON EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS ethnic minorities, cultural and political sociology, and social and political theory. His recent publications include Narrating European Society: Toward a Sociology of European Integration , ‘Understanding the Mechanisms of EU Politicization: Lessons from the Euro-zone crisis’ (co- authored with Paul Statham) in Comparative European Politics (2015), and Europe’s Prolonged Crisis: The Making or the Unmaking of a Political Union (edited together with Virginie Guiraudon and Carlo Ruzza) (Palgrave Macmillan). Ulrike Zschache is a postdoctoral research fellow at Siegen University, Germany, and co-applicant of the TransSOL project. She holds a dual PhD in European and Global Studies from Lancaster and Siegen University and studied sociology, cultural and political sciences, and journalism at the Universities of Leipzig and Rome (La Sapienza). Her research interests lie in the area of European integration, European public spheres, transna- tional solidarity, and the sociology of European societies. Ulrike is particu- larly interested in public discourses on European policy issues and the diffusion and appropriation of European ideas. She has published various books, book chapters, and articles. xv Fig. 4.1 The hierarchy of solidarity in the UK 85 Fig. 8.1 Marginal effects on civic solidarity practices by target group 213 Fig. 8.2 Marginal effects on political solidarity practices by target group 214 l ist of f igures xvii Table 2.1 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level 28 Table 2.2 Type of solidarity action at national level 28 Table 2.3 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by age group 29 Table 2.4 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by gender 30 Table 2.5 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by place of residence 30 Table 2.6 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by education 31 Table 2.7 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by occupational class 31 Table 2.8 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by social capital (frequency of meeting friends) 32 Table 2.9 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by attachment to country and fellow citizens 33 Table 2.10 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by political interest 34 Table 2.11 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by party attachment 34 Table 2.12 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by closeness to political party 35 Table 2.13 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by opinion on EU membership 36 l ist of t Ables xviii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.14 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by opinion on whether country benefits from EU membership 36 Table 2.15 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by support for EU debt relief 36 Table 2.16 Engagement in solidarity action at national, European and global level by what the respondent feels they receive relative to others in their country 37 Table 3.1 Frequencies of engagement over levels and fields of solidarity 48 Table 3.2 Multiple forms of actions over levels and fields of solidarity 50 Table 3.3 Multinominal regression models 1a–1f (socio-economic variables) 51 Table 3.4 Multinominal regression models 2a–2f—socio-structural determinants 53 Table 3.5 Multinominal regression models 3a–3f—cultural-ideational determinants 54 Table 3.6 Multinominal regression models for European level solidarity 57 Table 3.7 Multinominal regression models for solidarity with refugees 59 Table 3.8 Multinominal regression models for solidarity with unemployed people 60 Table 3.9 Multinominal regression models for solidarity with people with disabilities 62 Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics 79 Table 4.2 Solidarity practices in different geographical areas by constituent country in the UK 80 Table 4.3 Solidarity practices with vulnerable groups (refugees, unemployed, disabled) by constituent country in the UK 82 Table 4.4 Solidarity practices to support the rights in different areas and groups 86 Table 5.1 Socio-demographic characteristics of Polish respondents in TransSOL survey 110 Table 5.2 Explanatory variables—frequencies, means and standard deviations 112 Table 5.3 Participation in march, protest or demonstration in order to support the rights of people: in respondent’s country, in other countries in the EU and in countries outside the EU 114 Table 5.4 Donating time in order to support the rights of people in respondent’s country, in other countries in the EU and in countries outside the EU 115 Table 5.5 Donating money in order to support the rights of people in respondent’s country, in other countries in the EU and in countries outside the EU 117 xix LIST OF TABLES Table 5.6 Solidarity practices in Poland with different scopes of beneficiaries 118 Table 5.7 Logistic regression results (exp β ) for the model of general solidarity and model of transnational solidarity 120 Table 6.1 Type of reported solidarity activities in favour of three target groups 134 Table 6.2 Reported solidarity activities in order to support the rights of people/groups in different contexts 134 Table 6.3 Importance of development aid from the EU to assist certain countries outside the EU in their fight against poverty and in support of their development 135 Table 6.4 Evaluations of solidarity-based public policies 135 Table 6.5 Solidarity actions towards target groups by basic socio-demographic characteristics 137 Table 6.6 Solidarity actions towards target groups by income level and subjective social class 138 Table 6.7 Solidarity actions towards target groups by social capital 139 Table 6.8 Solidarity actions towards target groups by political involvement 140 Table 6.9 Solidarity actions towards target groups by left-right self-placement and libertarian-authoritarian index 141 Table 6.10 Solidarity actions towards target groups by voting intentions 143 Table 6.11 Solidarity actions towards target groups by social beliefs: reciprocity, conditionality, and deservingness 145 Table 6.12 Solidarity actions towards target groups by religiosity 146 Table 6.13 Estimated effects on solidarity actions towards different target groups for some predictors, separated models by blocks of variables 147 Table 6.14 Estimated effects on solidarity actions towards different target groups for some predictors, full model 150 Table 6.15 Variables used for the analysis: original wording, recoding, and distributions within the sample 160 Table 7.1 Volunteering for refugees/asylum seekers, unemployed and disabled in countries participating to TransSOL project 171 Table 7.2 Volunteers’/non-volunteers’ associations with specific demographic attributes, human capital indicators, informal social interactions and conventional political behaviour 180 Table 7.3 Volunteers’/non-volunteers’ differences in social trust, religiosity and unconventional political behaviour 181 Table 7.4 Binary logistic regression analysis of volunteering for refugees/asylum seekers in Greece 182 xx LIST OF TABLES Table 8.1 Proportions of solidarity practices towards vulnerable groups in Switzerland 204 Table 8.2 Logistic regression models on civic solidarity engagement strength (odds ratios) 208 Table 8.3 Logistic regression models on political solidarity engagement strength (odds ratios) 211 Table 9.1 Overall support and specific forms of solidarity actions per field 234 Table 9.2 Individual versus collective repertoire 236 Table 9.3 Solidarity towards the disabled individual factors 239 Table 9.4 Solidarity towards the unemployed individual factors 239 Table 9.5 Solidarity towards refugees individual factors 239 Table 9.6 Solidarity towards the disabled individual and political factors 240 Table 9.7 Solidarity towards the unemployed: individual and political factors 240 Table 9.8 Solidarity towards refugees individual and political factors 240 Table 9.9 Solidarity towards the disabled individual and political factors (controlled) 242 Table 9.10 Solidarity towards the unemployed individual and political factors (controlled) 243 Table 9.11 Solidarity towards refugees individual and political factors (controlled) 244 Table 10.1 Personal support of other people 255 Table 10.2 Eliminating inequalities 257 Table 10.3 Development aid 258 Table 10.4 Fiscal solidarity: pay public debts 259 Table 10.5 Fiscal solidarity: help refugees 260 Table 10.6 Fiscal solidarity: reasons 261 Table 10.7 Immigration policies for EU citizens 263 Table 10.8 Immigration policies for non-EU citizens 264 Table 10.9 Immigration policies for Syrian refugees 265 Table 10.10 Migrants and social rights 266 Table 10.11 EU membership good/bad 267 Table 10.12 Benefited from EU membership 268 Table 10.13 Effect on jobs and employment if country was * outside * the EU 269 Table 10.14 Referendum on EU membership 270 Table 10.15 Should the UK remain a member or leave the EU? 270 Table 10.16 Solidarity and support for EU membership 271 Table 10.17 Attachments 271 Table 10.18 Solidarity and attachment to the EU 272 1 © The Author(s) 2018 C. Lahusen, M. Grasso (eds.), Solidarity in Europe , Palgrave Studies in European Political Sociology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73335-7_1 CHAPTER 1 Solidarity in Europe–European Solidarity: An Introduction Christian Lahusen and Maria Grasso I ntroductIon Solidarity has received heightened attention in public debates during the last decade, because the various crises affecting the European Union have put the idea of European solidarity under stress. This is true in regard to the economic and financial crisis that has severely hit many European countries since 2008. Even though the European Union has developed a number of policy measures (e.g., the ‘European Financial Stability Facility’, the ‘European Stability Mechanism’, and the ‘Stability and Growth Pact’) which have opened the door to financial assistance, the European Union remained committed to a bail-out policy package that discarded a com- munitarization of debts and put the main burden on countries threat- ened with bankruptcy by imposing strict austerity measures. As a reaction, most commentators converged upon the conviction that international solidarity was dead (see Habermas 2017; Balibar 2010). A similar con- clusion was drawn in regard to the issues emerging in reaction to the C. Lahusen ( * ) Department of Social Sciences, University of Siegen, Siegen, Germany M. Grasso Department of Politics, University of Sheffield, London, UK 2 increased inflow of refugees from Syria and other regions affected by wars in 2015 and the inability of the EU institutions and its member states to agree on a coordinated asylum policy and mechanisms of admission and integration. Consensus could only be reached in regard to the external dimension (e.g., frontier controls, fight against human trafficking), leaving the issue of fair burden sharing through national quotas and relocation pro- grams unsolved. The success of populist parties in many European countries (e.g., France, the United Kingdom, Denmark, Italy, Spain), the Brexit vote, and the mobilization of Eurosceptic and xenophobic protests across Europe has raised further concerns that European solidarity might be at risk in a more fundamental and all-encompassing manner. In times of crisis, we might not only be witnessing the erosion of cooperation between member state governments but also the corrosion of social cohesion at the level of the European citizenry, thus threatening the social foundations on which EU institutions and policies are built. Does the crisis of European integra- tion translate into a crisis of European solidarity, and, if so, what are the manifestations at the level of individual citizens? Is European solidarity really on the retreat within the European citizenry? How strongly is soli- darity rooted at the individual level, both in terms of attitudes and prac- tices? And which driving factors and mechanisms tend to contribute to the reproduction and/or corrosion of solidarity in times of crisis? We are urgently in need of sound empirical evidence in order to answer these questions. Public debates and contentions continue to return to this issue, but we so far have very little empirical evidence on which to draw in order to inform this debate. Listening to these public debates, it seems as though pessimists are on the forefront. According to these views, the vari- ous crises affecting the European Union are putting European solidarity under strain. In times of economic growth and optimistic economic out- look, it should be easier to profess cooperation and help, while solidarity seems to be much more difficult to sustain in times of recession and scar- city. This is particularly true given that populist and xenophobic political entrepreneurs can draw on the exacerbation of citizens’ fear and griev- ances and that the crisis overlaps with a long history of ineffective policies in key domains, such as poverty and unemployment, immigration, and asylum. Under these circumstances, political debates seem to be marked increasingly by antagonism, conflict, and mistrust between governments and citizens, to the detriment of social cohesion and solidarity. In spite of this pessimistic outlook, there is, however, some room for optimism left. C. LAHUSEN AND M. GRASSO