o g ical Theo ial Psyc cho lo So ci ries, Histor or y ry Reconciliati ching a and R Tea ac on io Charis Psaltis | Mario Carretero | Sabina Čehajić-Clancy COST is supported by the EU Framework Programme Horizon 2020 History Education and Conflict Transformation Charis Psaltis · Mario Carretero Sabina Č ehaji ć -Clancy Editors History Education and Conflict Transformation Social Psychological Theories, History Teaching and Reconciliation Editors Charis Psaltis Department of Psychology University of Cyprus Nicosia, Cyprus Mario Carretero Autonoma University of Madrid Madrid, Spain Sabina Č ehaji ć -Clancy School of Science and Technology University Sarajevo Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina ISBN 978-3-319-54680-3 ISBN 978-3-319-54681-0 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-54681-0 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017937491 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017. This book is an open access publication. 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Printed on acid-free paper This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland v Social representations of history are fundamental in forming social iden- tities and are consequently critical for understanding intergroup rela- tions. Social psychological approaches are vital for understanding how history education can contribute to conflict transformation and reconcili- ation processes. In this volume, we discuss the effects, models and impli- cations of history teaching in relation to conflict transformation with an emphasis on how social psychological theories can enrich our under- standing of history teaching in relation to conflict transformation and reconciliation processes. This book is based on the contributions made by members of COST Action IS 1205, “Social psychological dynamics of historical represen- tations in the enlarged European Union” coming from various coun- tries who specialize in the study of post-conflict societies. In addition to COST IS 1205 members, renowned academics were also invited to offer an international perspective on the role of history teaching in conflict transformation including contributors from North and South America. The contributors comprise a mix of well-established, mid-career and young researchers and academics who study various actors and factors involved in history education ranging from policy making, school cur- ricula, textbooks, civil society organizations, teachers and teaching prac- tices themselves. Many of the contributors are particularly interested in the role of social representations of the past and of history, and of the role of group-based emotions in intergroup conflicts and reconciliation P reface and a cknowledgements vi PREfACE AND ACkNOwLEDGEMENTS processes. The contributors are also in the in processes of prejudice reduction, intergroup contact, apologies, guilt, shame, regret, forgive- ness, moral exemplars and conflict transformation. They all draw on vari- ous social psychological theories that attempt to understand processes of conflict transformation and reconciliation in the context of post-coloni- alism, post-cold-war transition, post-conflict societies, genocide and the holocaust drawing valuable links between social psychological theories and various aspects of history education. A distinct characteristic of this volume is that it stresses the impor- tance of an approach to history teaching that is transformative at all lev- els of analysis (intrapersonal, interpersonal, intergroup/positional and social representational/ideological). The list of contributors comprises social, developmental, cognitive and educational psychologists, historians and educators referring to various social psychological theories and mod- els to better understand the way that history teaching could be enriched from an interdisciplinary perspective. Such an interdisciplinary perspec- tive is described as transformative history teaching , in another outcome of the COST IS1205 network of researchers which is the publication of the “Recommendations for the History Teaching of Intergroup Conflicts” (Psaltis et al. 2017). Transformative history teaching attempts a critical understanding of the conflictual past through the cultivation of histori- cal thinking, empathy, an overcoming of ethnocentric narratives and the promotion of multiperspectivity. The first part of this volume discusses the state of the art from an international perspective on developments relating to (a) history text- book writing in post-conflict societies (b) work from international, regional and local civil society organizations on history teaching and rec- onciliation with the purpose of identifying the various strategies, theo- ries and models that inspired these initiatives and the extent to which they draw on social psychological theory explicitly or implicitly in con- flict transformation processes, and (c) lay representations of people in relation to master narratives in post-conflict societies in South Eastern Europe (Croatia, Serbia) and the Eastern Mediterranean (Cyprus) that give ample evidence of the pernicious effects of adherence to master nar- ratives at the representational level as a block to conflict transformation, reconciliation and political compromise. The second part of the volume deals with the question of perpetra- tor–victim dynamic and the specific tensions arising from the asymmetri- cal configurations of these different contexts (colonialism and holocaust) PREfACE AND ACkNOwLEDGEMENTS vii when it comes to the question of how to best deal with the legacies of the past, ingroup past wrongdoings, master narratives and counter-nar- ratives as well as the phenomenon of genocide and the holocaust in a way that can be informed by social psychological theory. This part makes clear that well-established approaches in history teaching, in this context, can be problematic not only because they fail to achieve their proclaimed reconciliation or moral aims but because they often run the danger of reproducing problematic aspects of history teaching that fail to promote the historical thinking skills of the students. The third part focuses on history textbooks and teachers as the main mediators of classroom teaching practice in post-transition and post- conflict settings that pose unique challenges due to the fact of reversals in asymmetric configurations of status and power. In such contexts, one interesting question is how history teachers from both the new and old minorities adjust to the rapture of a transition into a new constitution of a newly established nation state. The chapters of this section make clear the important role of the quality of deliberations and communication around textbook writing and actual teaching practice. finally, in the fourth part of the volume the focus moves to pedagogy and a comparison of various possible approaches that could be taken in post-conflict settings at the level of both formal and non-formal edu- cation through the work of civil society organizations. The context of Israel, Northern Ireland and Cyprus is very relevant to explore such questions because they all have by now gathered a lot of experience on the topic of this volume either through research on history teaching or through reflection on the work of civil society organizations in this field. The concluding chapter written by M. Carretero, a co-editor of the volume, draws on his experience on history teaching in relation to pat- riotism, nationalism, social identity processes and reconciliation in vari- ous parts of the world. It tries to be a reflective commentary establishing a meaningful relation between present trends in history education and how to rethink them in relation to the teaching of historical contents in post-conflict societies. Therefore, this chapter tries to focus not only on what to teach but also on how to teach it and how this could contribute to conflict transformation. Also, this chapter intends to develop a mean- ingful relation between social psychology contributions and present ideas coming from history education, historiography and related fields. we have enjoyed the process of preparing our edited volume and in particular the support of our colleagues and friends who have been viii PREfACE AND ACkNOwLEDGEMENTS helpful and challenging at the same time. Believing that our work will be useful for academics and practitioners living and working in (post-) conflict contexts has sustained us with positive energy throughout this process. we want to especially thank members of the COST Action IS 1205 (http://www.cost.eu/COST_Actions/isch/IS1205) coming from various European countries and beyond. COST IS 1205 is supported by COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology), which is a pan-European intergovernmental framework. Its mission is to enable breakthrough scientific and techno- logical developments leading to new concepts and products and thereby contribute to strengthening Europe’s research and innovation capacities. It allows researchers, engineers and scholars to jointly develop their own ideas and take new initiatives across all fields of science and technology, while promoting multi- and interdisciplinary approaches. COST aims at fostering a better integration of less research intensive countries to the knowledge hubs of the European Research Area. The COST Association, an International not-for-profit Association under Belgian Law, integrates all management, governing and administrative functions necessary for the operation of the framework. The COST Association has currently 36 Member Countries (www.cost.eu). without the intellectual and experiential contributions of researchers and academics from this COST Action and the generous funding from COST for the various working group meetings, this volume would not have been possible. we would like to extend special thanks to the chair of the COST Action IS 1205, Laurent Licata, who originally had the idea of such a volume in a meeting of COST IS 1205 working groups 2 and 4 in Cyprus. we also would like to thank our publishers for their enthusiasm, encouragement and support and specifically Eleanor Christie, Laura Aldridge and Andrew James. Charis Psaltis would like to thank all contributors for their valuable chapters and their enthusiasm for this project. He would also like to thank his co-editors; without them, this volume would not become a reality. Last but not least, he wishes to thank his wife Chara Makriyianni not only for her own pioneering work, in this field, in the civil society of Cyprus but also the valuable discussions along the process of writing up parts of this book. Last but not least, for her sacrifice of a lot of her valu- able time taking care of Maximos when he could not be around due to the editing of the volume. Charis hopes that this volume will contribute PREfACE AND ACkNOwLEDGEMENTS ix to both the process of reconciliation in Cyprus and other parts of the world and the cultivation of critically minded citizens so that children of the world like Maximos live in a more peaceful and co-operative world compared to the one we currently experience. Mario Carretero would like to thank all the members of the COST IS 1205 Project, and particularly Charis Psaltis who invited him to be co-editor of this volume, because their intellectual inputs were essential to achieve a better understanding of history education in post-conflicts societies. He would also like to thank Prof. Giovanna Leone and the CORIS Department of La Sapienza University (Rome) who supported his fellowship as Visiting Scholar for one semester providing excellent academic conditions for his work on this book. Sabina Č ehaji ć -Clancy wishes to thank her colleagues and friends that have mentored and supported her throughout her career as a psy- chologist working in conflict environments, especially Rupert Brown, Emanuele Castano and Eran Halperin. She would also like to thank her parents and her husband for their unconditional support, love and faith. She dedicates this volume to Noah and Ardan, her two greatest achievements. Nicosia, Cyprus Madrid, Spain Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina r eference Psaltis, C., McCully, A., Agbaria, A., Makriyianni, C., Pingel, f., karahasan, H., Carretero, M., Oguz, M., Choplarou, R., Philippou, S., wagner, w. & Papadakis, Y. (2017). Recommendations for the History Teaching of Intergroup Conflicts. COST IS 1205 working Group. Retrieved from http://docs.wixstatic.com/ ugd/89ca3b_a592bbe79ece4d218cbf9858928b5d10.pdf. Charis Psaltis Mario Carretero Sabina Č ehaji ć -Clancy xi Conflict Transformation and History Teaching: Social Psychological Theory and Its Contributions 1 Charis Psaltis, Mario Carretero and Sabina Č ehaji ć -Clancy Part I Global and Regional Perspectives on Textbook Writing, Civil Society Organizations and Social Representations History Textbook Writing in Post-conflict Societies: From Battlefield to Site and Means of Conflict Transformation 37 Denise Bentrovato Confronting History and Reconciliation: A Review of Civil Society’s Approaches to Transforming Conflict Narratives 77 Rezarta Bilali and Rima Mahmoud Social Representations of the Past in Post-conflict Societies: Adherence to Official Historical Narratives and Distrust Through Heightened Threats 97 Charis Psaltis, Renata franc, Anouk Smeekes, Maria Ioannou and Iris Žeželj c ontents xii CONTENTS Part II Social Psychological Perspectives of Perpetrators and Victims Power Struggles in the Remembering of Historical Intergroup Conflict: Hegemonic and Counter-Narratives About the Argentine “Conquest of the Desert” 125 Alicia Barreiro, Cecilia wainryb and Mario Carretero When History Teaching Turns into Parrhesia: The Case of Italian Colonial Crimes 147 Giovanna Leone How to Teach about the Holocaust? Psychological Obstacles in Historical Education in Poland and Germany 169 Michal Bilewicz, Marta witkowska, Silviana Stubig, Marta Beneda and Roland Imhoff Part III Textbook and Teacher Perspectives in Post-transition and Post-conflict Societies History Teaching as ‘Propaganda’? Teachers’ Communication Styles in Post-Transition Societies 201 katrin kello and wolfgang wagner A Clash of Communication? Intervening in Textbook Writing and Curriculum Development in Bosnia and Herzegovina After the War of 1992–1995 231 falk Pingel Textbook Narratives and Patriotism in Belarus 257 Anna Zadora CONTENTS xiii Part IV Pedagogical Approaches to History Teaching and Reconciliation The Official, The Empathetic and The Critical: Three Approaches to History Teaching and Reconciliation in Israel 277 Tsafrir Goldberg History Teaching to Promote Positive Community Relations in Northern Ireland: Tensions Between Pedagogy, Social Psychological Theory and Professional Practice in Two Recent Projects 301 Alan McCully and Jacqueline Reilly Formal and Non-formal Reform Efforts of History Teaching in Cyprus: Openings and Closures for Dangerous Memories and Reconciliation Pedagogies 321 Michalinos Zembylas and Hakan karahasan The Teaching of Recent and Violent Conflicts as Challenges for History Education 341 Mario Carretero Index 379 a bout the e ditors xv Charis Psaltis is an Associate Professor of Social and Developmental Psychology at the University of Cyprus. His research interests fall in the areas of genetic social psychology, social interaction in learning and cognitive development, social representations of gender, intergroup contact and intergroup relations between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots, development of national identities and history teaching and collective memory. He published papers in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, European Journal of Social Psychology, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, Culture & Psychology and Human Development. Since 2014, he is a member of the Editorial Board of the British Journal of Developmental Psychology and since 2015 Associate Editor of European Journal of Psychology of Education . In April 2014, his book co-authored with Anna Zapiti entitled Interaction, Communication and Development: Psychological Development as a social process was pub- lished by Routledge, and in 2015, his co-edited volume Social Relations in Human and Societal Development by Palgrave Macmillan. Mario Carretero is a Professor of Cognitive Psychology at Autonoma University of Madrid, Spain, where he was Dean of the faculty of Psychology, and Researcher at fLACSO, Argentina. He has carried out an extensive research on history education from both cognitive and sociocultural approaches. He has published in Journal of the Learning xvi ABOUT THE EDITORS Sciences and Cognition and Instruction His last books are History Education and the Construction of National Identities (2012) (co-ed.) and Constructing Patriotism (funded by the Guggenheim foundation) (2011). He has been Santander Visiting Scholar at the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies of Harvard University (2009) and Bliss Carnochan Visiting Professor at the Humanities Center of Stanford University (2011). His present research interests have to do with an interdisciplinary attempt to study history education issues as it can be seen in Palgrave Handbook of Research in Historical Culture and Education (2017) (co-edited along with S. Berger and M. Grever). Sabina Č ehaji ć -Clancy works as an Associate Professor of Social and Political Psychology at the Sarajevo School of Science and Technology in Bosnia and Herzegovina. She works in the field of intergroup relations, more specifically on reconciliation in post-conflict societies. She has pub- lished numerous papers in peer-reviewed journals such as Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, European Journal of Social Psychology, Political Psychology, Group Processes and Intergroup Relations and Psychological Inquiry . Sabina has also over thirteen years of experience in working as an expert consultant for various international and local NGO’s such as UNICEf, UNDP, Post-conflict Research Centre, Catholic Relief Service, Save the Children, and USAID designing and evaluating reconciliation-oriented interventions. Her work has received wide media coverage due to its unique methodological approaches used in (post-) conflict contexts. She is also a member of the Editorial Board for the Political Psychology Journal.. xvii l ist of f igures Social Representations of the Past in Post-conflict Societies: Adherence to Official Historical Narratives and Distrust Through Heightened Threats fig. 1 Effects of adherence to ingroup narratives on outgroup trust, mediated by perceived realistic, symbolic and group-esteem threat. Note Standardized coefficients presented and separated by a slash (Cyprus/Serbia/Croatia); the correlation between the two mediators was accounted for. † p < 0.01,* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001 111 History Teaching as ‘Propaganda’? Teachers’ Communication Styles in Post-Transition Societies fig. 1 Contextual dimensions of the history teacher’s action space 204 fig. 2 ‘Propagation’ as spanning a continuum between ‘propaganda’ and ‘dissemination’ 207 fig. 3 Opposite styles of propaganda and dissemination cross-cut by two opposite approaches in history teaching 208 The Official, The Empathetic and The Critical: Three Approaches to History Teaching and Reconciliation in Israel fig. 1 Path diagram for the effects of teaching approach on responsibility and interest in out-group perspective on acknowledgement of responsibility and out-group partner reaction 291 xix l ist of t ables Social Representations of the Past in Post-conflict Societies: Adherence to Official Historical Narratives and Distrust Through Heightened Threats Table 1 Means, SDs and correlations between variables, Cyprus 109 Table 2 Means, SDs and correlations between variables, Serbia 109 Table 3 Means, SDs and correlations between variables, Croatia 110 How to Teach about the Holocaust? Psychological Obstacles in Historical Education in Poland and Germany Table 1 Correlation between knowledge, understanding of history, attitudes and school education among warsaw students. Pearson correlation coefficients ( r ) 178 The Official, The Empathetic and The Critical: Three Approaches to History Teaching and Reconciliation in Israel Table 1 Means and standard deviations for defense of in-group narrative (DIN), interest in the other’s perspective (IO) perceived in-group responsibility (IR), glorification (GLO) and attachment (ATT) by condition and national group 282 Table 2 Bivariate correlations between liberal political affiliation, initia l interest in other and responsibility following learning 284 Table 3 Mean Jewish Arab difference scores for the dominance of discussion time and control of discussion by condition 288 xx LIST Of TABLES Table 4 Mean percentage of agreement and opposition utterances by condition and frequency of agreement on solution for the refugee problem, by condition 288 Table 5 Descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations of IGR and proportion of agreement, rejection, opposition and compliance utterances (% of total utterances), by ethnic group 289 1 Conflict Transformation and History Teaching: Social Psychological Theory and Its Contributions Charis Psaltis, Mario Carretero and Sabina Č ehaji ć -Clancy It is widely recognized that the number of international wars has declined continuously since the mid-1960s, whilst internal conflicts and civil wars became more numerous than those fought between nation states. Internal divisions of societies and separatism within a single politi- cal unit have also become a more frequent form of conflict. The nature of armed conflicts is also changing claiming the lives of more civilians compared to military personnel in relation to the past (Hobsbawm 2002). As kelman (2004, 2008) convincingly argued, this changing nature of wars ignited the recent research interest in the notion of recon- ciliation . In such a context the primary challenge is for former enemies © The Author(s) 2017 C. Psaltis et al. (eds.), History Education and Conflict Transformation , DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-54681-0_1 C. Psaltis ( * ) Social and Developmental Psychology, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus e-mail: cpsaltis@ucy.ac.cy M. Carretero Cognitive Psychology, Autonoma University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain S. Č ehaji ć -Clancy Social and Political Psychology, Sarajevo School of Science and Technology, University Sarajevo, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina 2 C. PSALTIS ET AL. to find the way to not only live together peacefully but even at times co- operate and share power. Today, almost two decades in the twenty-first-century humanity is witnessing both a revival of nationalism, separatism, sectarianism, ter- rorism and radical fundamentalism and proxy wars resulting in a vast number of casualties, refugees and internally displaced people. Despite the changing nature of these conflicts, it is clear that representations of the past and history teaching are still weaponized for these collective struggles (Bentrovato et al. 2016; Carretero 2011). Given the circum- stances, the time is ripe for the human kind to take stock of the knowl- edge gained from the study of peace and conflict in the social sciences and in particular of the way history teaching and representations of the past are used and abused in this context. In order to enable this process, we ought to systematically understand the process of conflict transforma- tion, the influences exerted by the past and more specifically the contri- butions made by the field of social psychology. c onflict t ransformation , c onflict r esolution and r econciliation : t he s ocial P sychological P ersPective The recent turn in the study of peace and conflict towards “conflict transformation” rather than “conflict resolution”, being the process of reaching a durable and mutually satisfactory solution between former enemies (kelman 2008), is a desired development because such a shift contributes to a greater understanding of the conflict context whilst focusing on more productive aspects of the conflict. In comparison the conflict resolution approach can be regarded as more restrictive in scope (Galtung 2000; Lederach 1997). Conflict transformation puts emphasis not only on the end of direct violence but rather a constant orientation to positive peace and the end of structural (e.g. inequal- ity, social exclusion and exploitation) and cultural forms of violence (e.g. perceived realistic and symbolic threats, prejudice, distrust). In other words, conflict transformation is concerned with transforming the systems, structures and relationships that give rise to violence and injustice. All available theoretical models of conflict transformation that go beyond conflict management and conflict resolution (Galtung 2000; CONfLICT TRANSfORMATION AND HISTORY TEACHING ... 3 Lederach 1997) emphasize the importance of understanding the pro- cesses that enable the transformation of conflict from its destructive and violent forms into a more productive form which is recognized as part of our everyday life to be resolved through dialogue, creative and peaceful means; conflict resolution and conflict transformation are not antitheti- cal and the notion of transformation in the post-conflict period is often presented as a stepping stone to resolution, especially in the case of pro- tracted conflicts (Constantinou 2015). A notion that occupies a crucial role in both approaches is the notion of reconciliation as both a process and an outcome that not only dimin- ishes the possibility for violent conflict in cases of structural inequalities and political instability but also facilitates peace settlements and sup- ports their viability afterwards. Social psychological concepts and theo- ries are recently making a unique contribution to our understanding of reconciliation. kelman (2004, 2008) proposes a notion of reconcili- ation from a social psychological perspective beyond any religious con- notations. In this context, reconciliation is of vital importance not only for reaching a peace settlement that will bring up a sense of justice and redress of inequality issues but also for its future viability through the cultivation of the element of trust (Marková and Gillespie 2012; Psaltis 2012a). Č ehaji ć -Clancy et al. (2016) conceptualize intergroup recon- ciliation as an emotion-regulation process involving positive affective change towards the outgroup, and they offer a framework that integrates the emotion regulation and intergroup reconciliation literatures. In this account, the emotions of intergroup hatred and anger towards the out- group need to be downregulated, whereas guilt for ingroup wrongdo- ings, hope and empathy need to be upregulated for deep psychological changes to be made possible. These psychological changes include altera- tions in beliefs, emotions, identity and behavioural intentions. Such an approach is premised on Intergroup Emotions Theory by Smith (1993) who argued that when group memberships are salient, people can feel emotions on account of their group’s position or treatment, even if they have had little or no personal experience of the actual intergroup situ- ations themselves. Behind Smith’s (1993) theory is the by-now classic Social Identity and Self-categorization theory (Tajfel and Turner 1979) which informs a great number of research in the social psychology of intergroup relations. Seeing reconciliation as simply an emotional regulation process was criticized for reducing reconciliation into a psychological and