A grammar of Papuan Malay Angela Kluge Studies in Diversity Linguistics 11 language science press Studies in Diversity Linguistics Chief Editor: Martin Haspelmath Consulting Editors: Fernando Zúñiga, Peter Arkadiev, Ruth Singer, Pilar Valen zuela In this series: 1. Handschuh, Corinna. A typology of marked-S languages. 2. Rießler, Michael. Adjective attribution. 3. Klamer, Marian (ed.). The Alor-Pantar languages: History and typology. 4. Berghäll, Liisa. A grammar of Mauwake (Papua New Guinea). 5. Wilbur, Joshua. A grammar of Pite Saami. 6. Dahl, Östen. Grammaticalization in the North: Noun phrase morphosyntax in Scandinavian vernaculars. 7. Schackow, Diana. A grammar of Yakkha. 8. Liljegren, Henrik. A grammar of Palula. 9. Shimelman, Aviva. A grammar of Yauyos Quechua. 10. Rudin, Catherine & Bryan James Gordon (eds.). Advances in the study of Siouan languages and linguistics. 11. Kluge, Angela. A grammar of Papuan Malay. 12. Kieviet, Paulus. A grammar of Rapa Nui. 13. Michaud, Alexis. Tone in Yongning Na: Lexical tones and morphotonology. ISSN: 2363-5568 A grammar of Papuan Malay Angela Kluge language science press Angela Kluge. 2017. A grammar of Papuan Malay (Studies in Diversity Linguistics 11). Berlin: Language Science Press. This title can be downloaded at: http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/78 © 2017, Angela Kluge Published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Licence (CC BY 4.0): http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ISBN: 978-3-944675-86-2 (Digital) 978-1-533457-94-3 (Softcover US) ISSN: 2363-5568 DOI:10.5281/zenodo.376415 Cover and concept of design: Ulrike Harbort Typesetting: Sebastian Nordhoff, Stephen Palmstrom, Dennis Pepler Proofreading: Alec Shaw, Alessia Battisti, Andreas Hölzl, Christian Döhler, Eitan Grossman, Elizabeth Zeitoun, Jonathan Brindle, Jonathan Kasstan, Jörn Piontek, Joseph Farquharson, Linda Lanz, Martin Haspelmath, Neele Harlos, Parviz Parsafar, Roelant Ossewaarde, Rong Chen, Slavomír Čéplö, Stathis Selimis, Steve Pepper, Teresa Proto, Varun de Castro-Arrazola Fonts: Linux Libertine, Arimo, DejaVu Sans Mono Typesetting software: XƎL A TEX Language Science Press Unter den Linden 6 10099 Berlin, Germany langsci-press.org Storage and cataloguing done by FU Berlin Language Science Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. buat Kori † , Sarlota † , Nela † dorang Contents Preface xv Acknowledgments xvii Abbreviations xxi Conventions for examples xxiii Maps xxvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Geographical setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Genetic affiliations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 1.2.1 Papuan Malay, a Malayic language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.2.2 Papuan Malay, a non-creole descendant of low Malay . . . . . . . 4 1.2.3 Papuan Malay, a distinct language within the Malay continuum . 8 1.3 Dialect situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 1.4 Linguistic setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.5 Sociolinguistic profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.5.1 Language use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 1.5.2 Language attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 1.6 Typological profile of Papuan Malay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.6.1 General typological profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 1.6.2 Papuan Malay as a language of the Papuan contact zone . . . . . 27 1.6.3 Papuan Malay as an eastern Malay variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 1.7 Demographic information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 1.7.1 Speaker numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 1.7.2 Occupation details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 1.7.3 Education and literacy rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 1.7.4 Religious affiliations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 1.8 History of Papuan Malay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 1.9 Previous research on Papuan Malay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 1.9.1 Early linguistic studies on the Malay varieties of West Papua . . 47 1.9.2 Recent linguistic descriptions of Papuan Malay . . . . . . . . . . 49 1.9.3 Sociolinguistic and sociohistorical studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 1.10 Available materials in Papuan Malay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Contents 1.11 Present study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 1.11.1 Theoretical considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 1.11.2 Setting of the research location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 1.11.3 Methodological approach and fieldwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 1.11.4 Papuan Malay corpus and speaker sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 1.11.5 Data transcription, analysis, and examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 1.11.6 Word list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 2 Phonology 65 2.1 Segment inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 2.1.1 Consonant system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 2.1.2 Vowel system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 2.2 Phonological processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 2.2.1 Nasal place assimilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 2.2.2 Tap/trill alternation of the alveolar rhotic . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 2.2.3 Centralization of vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 2.3 Phonetic processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 2.3.1 Phonetic processes for consonants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 2.3.2 Phonetic processes for vowels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.3.3 Alternative realizations of the VC sequences /aj/ and /aw/ . . . . 84 2.4 Phonotactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 2.4.1 Consonant phoneme distribution and sequences . . . . . . . . . 87 2.4.2 Vowel phoneme distribution and sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 2.4.3 Syllable structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 2.4.4 Stress patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 2.5 Non-native segments and loanwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 2.5.1 Non-native segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 2.5.2 Phonological and phonetic processes in loanwords . . . . . . . . 102 2.5.3 Phonotactics in loanwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 2.6 Orthographic conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 3 Word-formation 119 3.1 Affixation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 3.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 3.1.2 Prefix TER - ‘acl’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 3.1.3 Suffix -ang ‘pat’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 3.1.4 Prefix PE(N) - ‘ag’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 3.1.5 Prefix BER - ‘vblz’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 3.1.6 Suffix -nya ‘3possr’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 3.1.7 Circumfix ke- / -ang ‘nmlz’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 3.1.8 Variables of the communicative event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 3.2 Compounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 3.2.1 Demarcation of compounds from phrasal expressions . . . . . . . 178 vi Contents 3.2.2 Types of collocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 3.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 4 Reduplication 187 4.1 Lexeme formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 4.1.1 Full reduplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 4.1.2 Partial reduplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 4.1.3 Imitative reduplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 4.2 Lexeme interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 4.2.1 Reduplication of nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 4.2.2 Reduplication of verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 4.2.3 Reduplication of adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 4.2.4 Reduplication of numerals and quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 4.2.5 Reduplication of function words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 4.2.6 Gesamtbedeutung of reduplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 4.3 Reduplication across eastern Malay varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 4.3.1 Lexeme formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 4.3.2 Lexeme interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 4.3.3 Interpretational shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 4.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 5 Word classes 217 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 5.2 Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 5.2.1 Common nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 5.2.2 Proper nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 5.2.3 Location nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 5.2.4 Direction nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 5.2.5 Time-denoting nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 5.2.6 Classifying nouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 5.2.7 Kinship terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 5.3 Verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 5.3.1 Valency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 5.3.2 Predicative and attributive functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 5.3.3 Adverbial modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 5.3.4 Intensification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 5.3.5 Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 5.3.6 Negation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 5.3.7 Causative constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 5.3.8 Reciprocal constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 5.3.9 Morphological properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 5.3.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 5.4 Adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 5.4.1 Aspectual adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 vii Contents 5.4.2 Frequency adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 5.4.3 Affirmation and negation adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 5.4.4 Modal adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 5.4.5 Temporal adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 5.4.6 Focus adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 5.4.7 Degree adverbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 5.4.8 Expressing manner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 5.4.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 5.5 Personal pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 5.6 Demonstratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 5.6.1 Adnominal uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 5.6.2 Pronominal uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 5.6.3 Adverbial uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 5.6.4 Stacking of demonstratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 5.7 Locatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 5.7.1 Pronominal uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 5.7.2 Adnominal uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 5.8 Interrogatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 5.8.1 siapa ‘who’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 5.8.2 apa ‘what’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 5.8.3 mana ‘where, which’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 5.8.4 bagemana ‘how’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 5.8.5 kapang ‘when’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 5.8.6 knapa ‘why’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 5.8.7 Interrogative uses of mid-range quantifier brapa ‘several’ . . . . 299 5.8.8 Interrogatives denoting indefinite referents . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 5.8.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 5.9 Numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 5.9.1 Cardinal numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 5.9.2 Ordinal numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 5.9.3 Distributive numerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 5.9.4 Additional function of satu ‘one’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 5.10 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 5.10.1 Universal and mid-range quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 5.10.2 Distributive quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 5.11 Prepositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 5.12 Conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313 5.13 Tags, placeholders etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 5.13.1 Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315 5.13.2 Placeholders and hesitation markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 5.13.3 Interjections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 5.13.4 Onomatopoeia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 5.14 Variation in word class membership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320 viii Contents 5.15 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 6 Personal pronouns 325 6.1 Pronominal uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 6.1.1 Distribution of personal pronouns within the clause . . . . . . . 327 6.1.2 Modification of personal pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 6.1.3 Personal pronouns in adnominal possessive constructions . . . . 337 6.1.4 Personal pronouns in inclusory conjunction constructions . . . . 338 6.1.5 Personal pronouns in summary conjunctions . . . . . . . . . . . 341 6.1.6 Personal pronouns in appositional constructions . . . . . . . . . 342 6.2 Adnominal uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 6.2.1 Adnominal singular personal pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 6.2.2 Adnominal plural personal pronouns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359 6.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 7 Demonstratives and locatives 367 7.1 Demonstratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 7.1.1 Syntax and forms of demonstratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 7.1.2 Functions of demonstratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 7.2 Locatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 7.2.1 Syntax and forms of locatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 7.2.2 Functions of locatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 7.3 Combining demonstratives and locatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 7.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 8 Noun phrases 401 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 8.2 N-MOD structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 8.2.1 Verbs [n v] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 8.2.2 Nouns [n n] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 8.2.3 Personal pronouns [n pro] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 8.2.4 Demonstratives [n dem] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 8.2.5 Locatives [n loc] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 8.2.6 Interrogatives [n int] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 8.2.7 Prepositional phrases [n pp] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 8.2.8 Relative clauses [n rc] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 8.3 N-MOD / MOD-N structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 8.3.1 Numerals [n num / num n] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 8.3.2 Quantifiers [n qt / qt n] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 8.4 MOD-N structure: Adnominal possession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 8.5 Apposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 8.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 ix Contents 9 Adnominal possessive relations 425 9.1 Possessive marker punya ‘poss’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 9.1.1 possr-np punya / pu possm-np . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 9.1.2 possr-np =p possm-np . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 9.1.3 possr-np Ø possm-np . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 9.1.4 Grammaticalization of punya ‘poss’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 9.2 Realizations of possr-np and possm-np . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 9.2.1 Syntactic and semantic properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 9.2.2 Elision of the possessum noun phrase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 9.2.3 Recursive adnominal possessive constructions . . . . . . . . . . . 436 9.3 Noncanonical adnominal possessive constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 9.3.1 Locational relations and association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 9.3.2 Beneficiary relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 9.3.3 Intensifying function of punya ‘poss’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 9.3.4 punya ‘poss’ in reflexive expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 9.4 Summary and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 10 Prepositions and the prepositional phrase 445 10.1 Prepositions encoding location in space and time . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 10.1.1 di ‘at, in’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 10.1.2 ke ‘to’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 10.1.3 dari ‘from’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 10.1.4 sampe ‘until’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 10.1.5 Elision of prepositions encoding location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 10.2 Prepositions encoding accompaniment/instruments, goals, and benefaction 452 10.2.1 dengang ‘with’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 10.2.2 sama ‘to’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 10.2.3 untuk ‘for’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 10.2.4 buat ‘for’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 10.3 Prepositions encoding comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460 10.3.1 sperti ‘similar to’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 10.3.2 kaya ‘like’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 10.3.3 sebagey ‘as’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463 10.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 11 Verbal clauses 467 11.1 Intransitive and transitive clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 11.1.1 Verbal clauses with monovalent verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468 11.1.2 Verbal clauses with bivalent verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469 11.1.3 Verbal clauses with trivalent verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 11.2 Causative clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 11.2.1 Syntactic causatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 11.2.2 Lexical causatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 11.2.3 Periphrastic causative constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 x Contents 11.2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 11.3 Reciprocal clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 11.3.1 Syntactic reciprocals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 11.3.2 Lexical reciprocals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 11.3.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 11.4 Existential clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 11.4.1 One-argument existential clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496 11.4.2 Two-argument existential clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499 11.4.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 11.5 Comparative clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 11.5.1 Degree-marking comparative clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 11.5.2 Identity-marking comparative clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 11.5.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 11.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 12 Nonverbal clauses 509 12.1 Nonverbal clause subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 12.2 Nominal predicate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 12.3 Numeral and quantifier predicate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 12.4 Prepositional predicate clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 12.4.1 Locational prepositional clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 12.4.2 Nonlocational prepositional clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 12.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518 13 Negative, interrogative, and directive clauses 519 13.1 Negative clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 13.1.1 Negation with tida / tra ‘neg’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 13.1.2 Negation with bukang ‘neg’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 13.2 Interrogative clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 13.2.1 Content questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 13.2.2 Polar questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 13.2.3 Alternative questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 13.3 Directive clauses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 13.3.1 Imperatives and hortatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 13.3.2 Permissions and obligations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 13.3.3 Prohibitives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 14 Conjunctions and constituent combining 537 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 14.2 Conjunctions combining same-type constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 14.2.1 Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 14.2.2 Alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 14.2.3 Time and/or condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 14.2.4 Consequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 xi Contents 14.2.5 Contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551 14.2.6 Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 14.3 Conjunctions combining different-type constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 14.3.1 Complementizer bahwa ‘that’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 14.3.2 Relativizer yang ‘rel’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 14.4 Juxtaposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 14.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Appendix A: Word lists 565 A.1 Papuan Malay roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 A.2 Loanwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 A.3 Lexical items historically derived by (unproductive) affixation of Malay roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 Appendix B: Texts 623 B.1 Conversation: Playing volleyball; morning chores . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 B.2 Conversation: Buying soap; bringing gasoline to Webro . . . . . . . . . . 631 B.3 Conversation: Wanting bananas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641 B.4 Narrative: A drunkard in the hospital at night . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 B.5 Narrative: A motorbike accident . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645 B.6 Narrative: Pig hunting with dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 B.7 Expository: Directions to a certain statue and tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 B.8 Expository: Sterility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 B.9 Hortatory: Don’t get dirty! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 B.10 Hortatory: Bathe in the ocean! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 B.11 Joke: Drawing a monkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 B.12 Joke: Dividing three fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 Appendix C: Overview of recorded corpus 669 Appendix D: OLAC resources for the languages of the Sarmi regency 681 Appendix E: Population totals for West Papua 683 Appendix F: Affixation 687 F.1 Prefix TER - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 F.2 Suffix -ang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 F.3 Prefix PE(N) - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 F.4 Prefix BER - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692 F.5 Suffix -nya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 F.6 Circumfix ke- / -ang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696 References 699 xii Contents Index 723 Name index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 Language index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727 Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731 xiii Preface This book is the revised version of my PhD dissertation, published by LOT by the same title, which I successfully defended in June 2014 at Leiden University. The original dis- sertation has undergone a number of revisions; overall, however, its contents have re- mained the same. Acknowledgments The dissertation and this book could not have been written without the help of many people who have assisted, supported, guided, and encouraged me over the last years. First of all I want to thank Kori † and Sarlota † Merne and their large family in Sarmi and Webro who welcomed me into their house and family. They were always willing to help me, patiently answered all my questions, and let me record their conversations. Their love and friendship made me feel at home during my stays in Sarmi. I can only mention of few other members of their family and guests here: Absalom, Alex, Anto, Aris, Beni, Desi, Dina, Domi, Edo, Elda, Febe, Fiki, Fritz † , Hosea, Ice, Ici, Lina, Linda, Lodo, Martinus, Milka, Nela † , Nesti, Ponti, Rolant, Rut, Salome, Sara, Sela, Siska, Soko, Thomas, Yako, Yos, Yulius, and Yusup. Next I want to thank my friends and my two home churches in Hoffnungsthal and Oberhausen who supported me financially, prayed for me, and encouraged me through- out this research project. I would especially like to thank my home Bible study group in Hoffnungsthal. I am also very grateful for the scholarships which the Ken Pike Endow- ment Fund and SIL Asia Area provided over the past few years. Another word of thanks goes to my office in Germany with its wonderful staff. I am so grateful how my super- visors, colleagues, and friends encouraged and assisted me in this entire undertaking. I thank you all for standing beside me so faithfully A word of thanks also goes to Chip Sanders of SIL International and to Mark Dono- hue and the participants of ISMIL 11 in Manokwari who encouraged me to take on this research project. I want to express my gratitude toward my promotor Maarten Mous and my co-promo- tor Marian Klamer. I want to thank Maarten for his constant support and encouragement during the process of this research project. I am very grateful to Marian for her super- vision and for her commitment and encouragement throughout the years. I also want to thank her for her precise and detailed comments on different drafts of my original dissertation, which greatly improved its quality. I owe deep gratitude to my Papuan consultant and friend Ben Rumaropen. Working with him on Papuan Malay not only deepened my understanding of the language but was also a great joy and pleasure. Kawang, trima-kasi e?! I am very grateful to Antoinette Schapper for her generous support throughout the years and for working with me on different chapters of my dissertation. I also thank René van den Berg who read the first draft of my very first chapter so many years ago. His encouragement back then and throughout the past few years made a big difference for me in the entire process of this project. Acknowledgments A number of scholars took the time to read individual chapters of my original disser- tation. Thank you Geert Booij, Lourens de Vries, Harald Hammarström, Tom Headland, Erin Hesse, Paul Kroeger, Leonid Kulikov, Paul Lewis, Francesca Moro, Rick Nivens, Tom Payne, Christian Rapold, Uri Tadmor, Johnny Tjia, and Wilco van den Heuvel. Another word of thanks goes to those scholars and colleagues who discussed various aspects related to Papuan Malay with me, and assisted me in many different ways. I can only mention a few here: Jermy Balukh, Ted Bergman, Robert Blust, John Bowden, Joyce Briley, Adrian Clynes, Chuck Grimes, Arne Kirchner, Maarten Kossmann, Oliver Kroeger, Waruno Mahdi, Veronika Mattes, David Mead, Roger Mills, Edith Moravcsik, Scott Paauw, Angela Prinz, Werner Riderer, Jim Roberts, John Roberts, Silke Sauer, Ellie Scott, Graham Scott, Oliver Stegen, Joyce Sterner, Irene Tucker, Aone van Engelenhoven, and Catharina Williams-van Klinken. A word of thank also goes to the participants of the AN-Lang (Austronesian Lan- guages) Mailing list and the SIL Linguistics Mailing list for responding to my inquiries and helping me in getting a better grasp of Papuan Malay. I also want to thank the two anonymous reviewers, LangSci’s consulting editor, and Martin Haspelmath, one of LangSci’s general editors. Their comments, suggestions and corrections greatly helped to improve the quality of this book. I am very grateful to the staff of SIL Asia Area, SIL Indonesia, and YABN, particularly Jackie Menanti, who provided me generously with their help in so many different ways. Another word of thanks goes to Emma Onim for transcribing some of the recorded texts, and to Lodowik Aweta for participating in the recording of the Papuan Malay word list. Thanks also go to Allan and Karen Buseman and Marcus Jaeger for their help with Toolbox and the Citavi.com staff for their wonderful bibliography and citation program. I owe deep gratitude to my colleagues Lenice and Jeff Harms. Staying with them in Sentani, and being able to share my fascination with Papuan Malay with Lenice was a joy and pleasure. I am also grateful to Rita Eltgroth and Joyce Briley. I enjoyed sharing offices in the library complex in Sentani with them and staying with Rita. Another word of thank goes to Anne-Christie Hellenthal, Francesca Moro, Victoria Nyst, and Christian Rapold. Over the years I spent many hours with them discussing “Gott und die Welt”, linguistics in general, and Papuan Malay in particular. It was always a source of great joy to me to spend time with you. I would like to thank the LUCL office staff, namely Gea Hakker-Prins, Merel van Wijk, Anne Rose Haverkamp, and Alice Middag-Cromwijk. I would like to thank them for their assistance with the administrative questions I had. I also want to thank the Accommo- date staff, namely Linda Altman, Tessa van Witzenburg, and Eric van Wijk. Their help with housing issues made living in Leiden a pleasure. Thank you all very much! I am also very grateful to my colleagues who spent days proof-reading my original dissertation. I want to thank Sarah Hawton and Shirley McHale for their generous help. Another big thank-you goes to my colleagues Dennis Pepler, Stephen Palmstrom, Felix Kopecky and Sebastian Nordhoff for their generous help with converting the Word ver- sion of this book to LaTeX. Especially Stephen Palmstrom spent countless hours on this project - thank you so much! I am also grateful to Judy Lakeman and Jackie Gray for facilitating this help! xviii