HABITAT AND ROOST SITE SELECITON BY MALE EASTERN WILD TURKEYS IN SOUTHWESTERN GEORGIA by JAMES ANDREW RUTTINGER (Under the Direction of Robert J. Warren and Michael J. Chamberlain) ABSTRACT Habitat and roost site selection of male eastern wild turkeys ( Meleagris gallopavo sylvestris ) were investigated on 2 southwestern Georgia sites of predominantly longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) and pine-hardwood forests — the Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center and Silver Lake Wildlife Management Area. Males selected for mature forest habitat types, specifically mature pine habitats. Males also selected hardwood habitats within the study areas and mixed pine-hardwood habitats within their home ranges. They selected roosts in or near mature pine or hardwood habitats with a dense herbaceous understory, and avoided roosting near pine plantations, shrub/scrub habitat, and roads — though they occasionally roosted in plantation pines. Maintaining mature pine, hardwood, and/or mixed stands will promote male turkey habitat and ensure the availability of roosts in the longleaf pine ecosystem, and though they are not selected for the most, pine plantations can also be used as roost sites. INDEX WORDS: eastern wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo silvestris , compositional analysis, habitat selection, roost site selection, mature pine, mixed pine- hardwood HABITAT AND ROOST SITE SELECTION BY MALE EASTERN WILD TURKEYS IN SOUTHWESTERN GEORGIA by JAMES ANDREW RUTTINGER BSFR, University of Georgia, 2010 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of The University of Georgia in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTEROF SCIENCE ATHENS, GEORGIA 2013 © 2013 James Andrew Ruttinger All Rights Reserved HABITAT AND ROOST SITE SELECTION BY MALE EASTERN WILD TURKEYS IN SOUTHWESTERN GEORGIA by JAMES ANDREW RUTTINGER Major Professor: Robert J. Warren Michael J. Chamberlain Committee: L. Mike Conner Jeffrey Hepinstall-Cymerman Electronic Version Approved: Maureen Grasso Dean of the Graduate School The University of Georgia August 2013 iv DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this thesis to my parents, Jennie and Frank, and my sister, Courtney. Thank you all for your love and support throughout my pursuit of attaining my M.S. degree. Without you this would not have been possible. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I would like to thank my major advisors, Drs. Robert Warren and Michael Chamberlain, and thesis committee members, Drs. Mike Conner and Jeff Hepinstall-Cymerman, for all of their mentoring and support throughout the pursuit of my M.S. Degree. I thank the Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center, the Georgia Department of Natural Resource’s Wildlife Resource Division, the University of Georgia’s Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, and the Georgia Chapter of the National Wild Turkey Federation for providing financial support for this research. Data collection and turkey trapping could not have been done without the assistance and drive of the following “turkey crew” graduate students: Derek Colbert, Meg Williams, Andy Little, and Christina Perez. Also assisting in data collection and turkey trapping were the following (in no particular order): Adam White, Nick Deuel, Will McGuire, Jess McGuire, Chaz Oliver, Melinda Nelson, Mike Cherry, John Denton, Joe Warden, Ashley Free, Jessica Rutledge, and Gail Morris. Thank you all for making this possible! I thank the entire staff of the Jones Center for all of your support from turkey trapping, to ArcGIS assistance. The Jones Center has been a second home to me for the last 4 years and most of the practical experience I have gained in the wildlife field is from there. Finally, I thank Dr. Nate Nibbelink and Elizabeth Hunter for their unending patience in helping me run and understand some data analyses in Program R. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION, LITERATURE REVIEW AND THESIS FORMAT ....................1 Eastern Wild Turkey Life History ...........................................................................2 Male Habitat Use .....................................................................................................3 Male Roost Site Selection ........................................................................................4 Thesis Format...........................................................................................................6 Literature Cited ........................................................................................................6 2 HABITAT SELECTION OF MALE EASTERN WILD TURKEYS IN THE LONGLEAF PINE ECOSYSTEM IN SOUTHWESTERN GEORGIA ....................13 Abstract ..................................................................................................................14 Introduction ............................................................................................................15 Methods..................................................................................................................16 Results ....................................................................................................................21 Discussion ..............................................................................................................21 Management Implications ......................................................................................25 Literature Cited ......................................................................................................26 vii 3 ROOST SITE SELECTION OF MALE EASTERN WILD TURKEYS IN SOUTHWESTERN GEORGIA ..................................................................................36 Abstract ..................................................................................................................37 Introduction ............................................................................................................38 Methods..................................................................................................................39 Results ....................................................................................................................45 Discussion ..............................................................................................................46 Management Implications ......................................................................................50 Literature Cited ......................................................................................................51 4 SYNTHESIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................64 Literature Cited ......................................................................................................67 viii LIST OF TABLES Page Table 2-1: Habitat types delineated from previous landcover data and aerial photography for Ichauway and Silver Lake WMA in southwestern Georgia, 2011-2012. ..........................34 Table 2-2: Ranks (5 = most selected , 0 = least select ed) of Johnson’s 2 nd order and 3 rd order habitat selection using compositional analysis of male eastern wild turkeys at Ichauway and Silver Lake WMA in southwestern Georgia, 2011-2012. Rankings with different letters within an order were significantly different. ...........................................................35 Table 3-1: Success rates using ground-based thermal imagery to determine roost sites of male eastern wild turkeys at Ichauway and Silver Lake WMA in southwestern Georgia, 2011- 2013....................................................................................................................................57 Table 3-2: Variable categories and definitions of variables measured at male eastern wild turkey roost and random sites at Ichauway and Silver Lake WMA in southwestern Georgia, 2011-2013 ..........................................................................................................................58 Table 3-3: Identification, percentage of habitat selection, and number of times observed on the roost for male eastern wild turkeys at Ichauway and Silver Lake WMA in southwestern Georgia, 2011-2013 ...........................................................................................................59 Table 3-4: Models, number of variables (K), distance from second- order Akaike’s In formation Criteria (∆AIC c ), and model weights ( w i ) explaining the effects of roost tree, understory, stand, and landscape level vairables on predicting male eastern wild turkey roost sites at Ichauway and Silver Lake WMA in southwestern Georgia, 2011-2013 ...........................60 ix Table 3-5: The top performing model (Understory+Landscape), combinations of it including study site and biological season as variables, number of variables (K), distance from second- order Akaike’s Information Criteria (∆AIC c ), and adjusted model weights ( w i ) explaining the effects of hunting pressure and breeding season on predicting male eastern wild turkey roost sites at Ichauway and Silver Lake WMA in southwestern Georgia, 2011-2013. .........................................................................................................................61 Table 3-6: Average variable estimates, unconditional standard errors, sum of Akaike weights, and 95% confidence intervals of predictor variables found in the top approximating models for male eastern wild turkey roost habitat at Ichauway and Silver Lake WMA in southwestern Georgia, 2011-2013 .....................................................................................62 Table 3-7: Mean and standard error of informative variables (variables in the top approximating models with 95% confidence intervals excluding zero) used to predict roost site selection of male eastern wild turkeys at Ichauway and Silver Lake WMA in southwestern Georgia, 2011-2013 ...........................................................................................................63 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION, LITERATURE REVIEW AND THESIS FORMAT The wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo ) is a species that attracts the interest of many landowners and wildlife managers because of its popularity as a game species and importance as a recreational resource (Vangilder and Kurzejeski 1995, Tapley et al. 2001). According to the National Wild Turkey Federation (National Wild Turkey Federation [NWTF] 2003), there has been a 450% increase in the number of turkey hunters since 1973 in the U.S. An estimated $2 billion of economic impact has been added to America ’s economy from spring turkey hunting seasons alone via habitat improvement, tourism, and management agency fees. This popularity has led to numerous research studies; however, many knowledge gaps still exist. One topic in need of research is wild turkey resource selection throughout its range. Habitat and roost site selection are critical aspects to our understanding of male wild turkey spatial ecology, and are of paramount importance to the development and implementation of efficient management practices to maximize wild turkey abundance. The eastern wild turkey ( M. g. sylvestris ) is the subspecies with the largest distribution (Kennamer 2013), and research is needed to determine any possible difference in management for birds across different ecosystems. Little is known about male turkey habitat selection in the endangered longleaf pine ( Pinus palustris ) — wiregrass ( Aristida stricta ) ecosystem native to the southeastern U.S., and even less is known about roosting ecology of male wild turkeys. Recent declines have been observed in wild turkey populations in several southeastern U.S. states such as Georgia (D. K. Lowrey, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, unpublished data), South 2 Carolina (C. Ruth, South Carolina Department of Natural Resources, unpublished data), and Alabama (S. W. Barnett, Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, unpublished data). Factors that account for the recent decline of some turkey populations may include an abundance of predators, environmental factors (e.g., drought or flooding), or limited habitat requirements such as food or roost site availability (Georgia Department of Natural Resources [GADNR] 2011). Therefore, distinguishing selected habitat is important to the development of management programs designed to sustain wild turkey populations. Eastern Wild Turkey Life History The wild turkey is a native, large non-migratory game bird that ranges throughout the eastern United States. Portions of the southwestern United States, northern Mexico, and southeastern Canada (Mock et al. 2002). Five subspecies occur across North America: Rio Grande ( M. g. intermedia ), Merriam’s ( M. g. merriami ), Gould’s ( M. g. mexicana ), Osceola ( M. g. osceola ), and eastern wild turkey ( M. g. sylvestris ). My research focused on the eastern wild turkey, which is found throughout most of the eastern United States including the Cumberland Plateau, Appalachian Plateau, Ozarks, and Gulf States (NWTF 2013). Eastern wild turkeys use a wide variety of habitats within their native range including: old forests (Porter 1992), forest openings, farms, plantations (Shaffer and Gwynn 1967), large timberlands with little human disturbance (Shaw 1959), mixed forest and agriculture (Vangilder and Kurzejeski 1995), and managed pine habitats (Kennamer et al. 1980, Holbrook et al. 1985, Exum et al. 1987). Wild turkeys were mostly extirpated throughout their range in the United States by the early 1900s. In 1973, turkey populations were as low as 1.3 million nationally with only 17,000 birds in Georgia (NWTF 2003, GADNR 2011). Restocking programs have increased population sizes to an estimated 6 million birds nationally and >300,000 birds in Georgia (NWTF 2003, 3 GADNR 2011). Currently, some estimates indicate that turkey numbers in Georgia have stabilized (GADNR 2011); however, some populations in the Southeast appear to be declining (D. K. Lowrey, C. Ruth, S. W. Barnett, unpublished data). These perceived declines have led to questions about the factors that may currently be affecting wild turkey populations in southeastern U.S. ecosystems. Male Habitat Use Eastern wild turkeys use a variety of habitats including: old-growth forests (Porter 1992), forest openings, farms, plantations (Shaffer and Gwynn 1967), large timberlands with little human disturbance (Shaw 1959), mixed pine hardwood forests and agriculture (Vangilder and Kurzejeski 1995), and managed pine habitats (Kennamer et al. 1980, Holbrook et al. 1985, Exum et al. 1987). In the southeastern U.S., male wild turkeys select for upland pine ( Pinus spp. ) habitat during the fall, winter, and summer months; however, hardwood habitats are selected during the spring to increase probability of encounter with females (Godwin et al. 1992, Miller et al. 1999). Seasonal habitat use and other behavioral aspects (e.g., movement patterns) of male wild turkeys are affected by availability of food, water, and roosting habitat throughout the year (Holdstock et al. 2006, Stoddard 1963), with increased movement behaviors observed during the spring breeding season and less selection for specific habitat types as their behaviors change to include searching for females (McMahon and Johnson 1980, Clark 1985, Kelly et al. 1988, Godwin et al. 1994, Miller et al. 1999). The endangered native longleaf pine — wiregrass community was once the dominant ecosystem in the southeastern coastal plain (Noss 1989, Frost 1993). Longleaf pine communities require prescribed burning (Stoddard 1963, Provencher et al. 1998). Burn intervals recommendations for wild turkey management range from 3-5 years (Stoddard 1963, McGliny 4 1985, Hurst and Dickson 1992, Palmer et al. 1996, Miller et al. 2000) in mature pine forests and 3-7 years in commercial pine forests (Miller and Conner 2007). However, fire frequencies < 3 years are typically needed to maintain the desired herbaceous ground cover associated with pine savannahs (Glitzenstein et al. 2008). The effects of the 1-2-year burn rotations often used in longleaf pine forest have been studied little. Frequent fires may influence male wild turkey movement patterns by increasing availability or quality of forage in frequently burned areas as documented for other wildlife species (Stransky and Harlow 1981, Landers et al. 1986, Robbins and Myers 1992, Main et al. 2000). The objective of this study was to determine resource selection of male eastern wild turkeys at multiple scales on 2 longleaf pine-dominated forests in southwestern Georgia. Male Roost Site Selection Roost site selection is important for wild turkeys because roosting in trees is a predator avoidance mechanism and provides protection from adverse weather (Bailey and Rinell 1967, Austin and Degraaf 1975, Porter 1978, Kilpatrick et al. 1988). Land management practices that limit roost site availability (e.g. hardwood removal) may restrict the distribution of wild turkeys and expose them to greater risk of predation. This concern is applicable to all life stages of eastern wild turkeys because poults begin roosting in trees as soon as they are able to fly — within 2 weeks post-hatch (Speak et al. 1985, Vangilder et al. 1987, Peoples et al. 1995, Hubbard et al. 1999). Previous studies have examined roosting habitat of the Merriam’s wild turkey (Hoffman 1968, Boeker and Scott 1969, Mackey 1984), the Rio Grande wild turkey (Crockett 1973, Haucke 1975), and the eastern wild turkey (Tzilkowski 1971, Kilpatrick et al. 1988) however, such studies have typically focused on winter roost characteristics in northern parts of their range 5 as the prevailing harsh conditions create higher mortality rates (Austin and DeGraaf 1975, Wunz and Hayden 1975, Porter 1978). Chamberlain et al. (2000) determined that eastern wild turkey females selected mature trees in mixed pine-hardwood or pure pine stands. Moreover, wild turkeys have been shown to select roost sites near water or feeding areas (Dickson 1992). Previous studies on roosts in the southeastern U.S. did not assess microhabitat characteristics associated with the roosts. Studies that successfully found specific roost trees focused on female winter roost characteristics in northern parts of the turkey’s range where large groups of birds roosted together, which made roost trees easily detectable because of scat deposits on the tree and footprints in the snow surrounding roost sites (Austin and DeGraaf 1975, Wunz and Hayden 1975, Porter 1978). No studies have evaluated roost site selection by males in the longleaf pine ecosystem, nor have studies of roost sites involved actual observations of roosting birds. Accurate determination of roost trees is difficult using traditional methodology (e.g., remote location via radio telemetry). Thermal imaging offers a potential tool for observing roosting turkeys. Locke et al. (2006) tested the use of aerial and ground-based forward-looking infrared technology to detect wild turkeys, concluding that aerial detection was unsuccessful because the thermal imaging camera could not view roosting turkeys through the tree canopy. However, ground-based thermal detection efforts were more successful. Because there has been little research on roost site selection, it is unclear whether turkeys use certain habitat types because of roost selection or if roost sites are simply chosen because the birds are in that area when night falls (Chamberlain et al. 2000). I used radio telemetry coupled with thermal imagery to determine if the combination of these technologies can better facilitate location of roost sites. 6 Thesis Format My research objectives were to (1) determine seasonal habitat selection of male wild turkeys in the longleaf pine ecosystem in southwestern Georgia, (2) test the efficacy of a new approach to detect roosting wild turkeys, and (3) determine roost site selection of male eastern wild turkeys in a longleaf pine-dominated forest. My research was conducted at the Joseph W. Jones Ecological Research Center (henceforth Ichauway) and the Georgia Department of Natural Resources ’ Silver Lake Wildlife Management Area (hereafter, Silver Lake WMA) located in southwestern Georgia. Chapter 2 describes seasonal habitat selection of male wild turkeys in southwestern Georgia. 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