All Rights reserved Manish Verma : Written by Manish Verma – Where every problem is solved of University of Delhi The University of Delhi, informally known as Delhi University (DU), is a collegiate public central university located in New Delhi, India. It was founded in 1922 by an Act of the Central Legislative Assembly and is recognized as an Institute of Eminence (I Mr. Manish Verma (M.A Political Scien unreached. I'm an educator of DU SOL channel https://www.youtube.com/c/ManishVermaChannel This channel helps you to Dream, Achieve & Succeed. Successfully Joined us by millions of students. We would like to thanks to the DU SOL Students for the incredible support. We provide B.A & M.A Notes, Important Question with Answer for the final exams, Solved Assignments. And Online Classes. our YouTube channel: Manish Verma ☏ +91 8368259468, 9599279672, 8882104776 ✉ Gmail – contact.manishverma@gmail.com Ⓒ Manish Verma ©THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1957. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted by copyright law. Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ University of Delhi , SOL, NCWEB The University of Delhi, informally known as Delhi University (DU), is a collegiate public central university located in New Delhi, India. It was founded in 1922 by an Act of the Central Legislative Assembly and is recognized as an Institute of Eminence (I oE) by the University Grants Commission (UGC). Mr. Manish Verma (M.A Political Scien ce, B.Ed., DU SOL Teacher) Our aim is to reach the DU SOL students and trying to guide through my YouTube https://www.youtube.com/c/ManishVermaChannel more than 8 years ago. This channel helps you to Dream, Achieve & Succeed. Joined us by millions of students. thanks to the DU SOL Students We provide DU SOL M.A Notes, Important Question with Answer for the final exams, Solved Assignments. And Online Classes. Subscribe to Manish Verma +91 8368259468, 9599279672, 8882104776 contact.manishverma@gmail.com ©THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1957. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means, including Photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted 1 https://joshbadhao.com/ The University of Delhi, informally known as Delhi University (DU), is a collegiate public central university located in New Delhi, India. It was founded in 1922 by an Act of the Central Legislative Assembly and is oE) by the University Grants Commission (UGC). Our aim is to reach the students and trying to guide through my YouTube 8 years ago. ©THE COPYRIGHT ACT 1957. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, including Photocopying, recording, or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other noncommercial uses permitted 1 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ 1 . Explain the major theories of learning with their implication in the classroom. Ans - In simple language, we define learning as a change in a person's behaviour or knowledge due to some kind of experience. Robert Gagne (1965) defines learning as "A change in human disposition or capability that persists over a while and is not simply ascribe to processes of growth”. Encyclopedia of Britannica defines learning as follows: “Learning, t he alteration of behaviour as a result of individual experience. When an organism can perceive and change its behaviour, it is said to learn." Learning has been defined differently at different period of time. The earliest explanation of learning came from many philosophers like Aristotle, Plato, and Locke etc. Plato insisted on the existence of previous knowledge. According to him, we can only learn when we already knew something. Aristotle said we can remember the things together when they are either simi lar or in contrast and when they are contiguous. “The principle of contiguity states that whenever two or more sensations occur together often enough, they will become associated. Later only one of these sensations (a stimulus) occurs, the other will be re membered too (a response)” (Rachlim, 1999; Wasserman & Miller, 1997). This notion helps to develop the behaviourist theory of learning. 1. Behaviorist Views of Learning : In the early 1900s behaviourism originated and in the early 20th century it became do minant. According to behaviourism, learning is the change in behaviour because of the acquisition, reinforcement and application of associations between the stimuli from the environment and observable responses of the individual. It has two major versions. Classical Conditioning developed by a Russian physiologist Pavlov in the 1920s which explained the association of automatic responses with new stimuli. The theory has been explained by Pavlov's experiment on dog in which the food was used as a stimulus a nd it was paired with the previously stimuli that were bell in this case. He began by sounding the bell; there is no salivation of the dog. Here the sound of the bell is a neutral stimulus. Then they fed the dog which response was salivation of the dog. Th e food was a conditional stimulus and salivation was the unconditional response, because it occurred automatically. After repeated several times, the dog began to salivate after hearing the sound of the bell without receiving the food. This response after the bell was now a conditioned response. By this association between 2 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ unconditional stimulus (food) and the sound of the bell, the desired response can be elicited. Later the previously neutral stimulus (bell) alone evokes the response that is, the neutral stimulus is conditioned to bring forth a conditioned response. Now neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus. The second theory is developed by Edward Thorndike and B.F Skinner. It is called operant conditioning. Humans do not learn automatically and unintentionally. Their behaviour is not guided by external stimuli, they supposed to operate their environment actively and produce many consequences. The voluntary actions are called Operant and the learning process involved in operant behaviour is k nown as Operant Conditioning. "Operant Conditioning is a learning in which voluntary behaviour is strengthened or weakened by consequences or antecedents” (Woolfolk, 1980) this theory explains that response is either increased or decreased because of punis hment or reinforcement. He explained how reinforcement helps to strengthen behaviour and how behaviour can be reduced by punishment. He also analyzed the impact of scheduled reinforcement on behaviour with a focus on timing and rate of reinforcement. So i n nutshell the Behaviouristic school of thought views learning as follows: Knowledge is a fixed body for which stimulationis acquired from the outside. Learning is the only acquisition of facts, skills and concepts. Teaching is the only transmission of th ese facts, skills and concepts. The learner is only a passive receiver of information. They are active listener and direction follower provided by teachers. The teacher is in the role of supervisor or manager who transmits the knowledge and corrects the wrong answer. The role of peers is not considered in this view of learning. 2. Cognitivist Views of Learning: Cognitive Psychology emphasizes complex mental structure (phenomena) which is completely ignored by behaviourists. It developed in the late 1950s . "Cognitive Psychology is about a shift from ‘viewing the learners and their behaviours as a product of environmental stimuli' to seeing the learners as sources of plans, intentions, goals, ideas, memories and emotions actively used to attend to, select a nd construct meaning from stimuli and knowledge from experience." (Wittrock, 1982) It is devoted to the study of human cognition; particularly it affects behaviour and learning. 3 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ This theory is influenced by the computer. It compares computer with the huma n mind. Like the computer, we are also an information processor who absorbs knowledge, do cognitive operations on it and keep it in our memory. In this view, acquisition of knowledge leads to change in behaviour. Therefore lecturing method is the preferred method by cognitive psychology and it assumes that learners are a passive recipient of knowledge given by the teacher. Cognitive learning theory impacts students because their understanding of thought process can help them learn. Teachers can give student s the opportunity to ask questions, fail and think out loud. These strategies can help students understand how their thought process works and utilize this knowledge to construct better learning opportunity. So in nutshell the Cognitivist school of thought views learning as follows: Knowledge is fixed and to acquire this knowledge we required stimulation from outside but when we process the information, our prior knowledge influences it. Learning is the acquisition of facts, skills, concepts and strategies and to gain this we need effective application of strategies. Teaching is the transmission of this knowledge and guides the learners towards more accurate and complete knowledge. The le arner is an active processor of information, strategy maker and user. They are organizer and reorganizer of the information. Role of teachers to teach effective strategies and model and correct the misconceptions of the learners. The role of peers is not important but they can influence the information processing sometimes. 3. Constructivist Views of Learning: After Cognitive Psychology, Constructivism emerged in the 1970s and 1980s. This theory considers the learners are not a passive recipient of knowl edge, but they construct knowledge actively. They construct the knowledge with the help of their mental structure when they interact with the environment. According to Palincsar (1998) "Most of the theories in cognitive science include some kind of constru ctivism because these theories assume that individuals construct their own cognitive structures as they interpret their experiences in particular situations. Constructivism view of learning led to the shift from knowledge acquisition to knowledge construct ion. Jean Piaget and Vygot sky was the influential theorist who supports this constructive nature of learning. Piaget is more concerned with individual 4 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ knowledge, beliefs, self - concept and identity. He concerned about how an individual learned based on the ir knowledge, belief and self - concept. On the other side, Vygotsky is more concerned about the social interaction, culture of an individual that helps one to learn something and shape individual development. Despite different version of constructivism, one thing is common that is the learner - centered approach, where the teacher becomes a guide of the learner, not a knowledge transmitter. This theory helps students to bring their own experience to the classroom every day 3.1 Social Learning Theory : Social l earning theory is very popular. It has been developed by Albert Bandura. Bandura work with both frameworks: cognitive and behavioral. He focused on social behaviour and emphasizes that we learn through the observation of others. He distinguishes between th e acquisition of knowledge and the observable performance based on that knowledge. He argues that children may have learned certain behaviour but their performance depends on the rewards or punishment. For example, children may have learned how to write th e alphabet but they can perform badly because they are anxious or may be ill. In this case, their performance is different from their learning. He gave the concept of Modeling, Observational learning and imitation. Observation can be very useful for learni ng. “Through observational learning, we learn not only how to perform behaviour but also what will happen to us in specific situation if we do perform it (Woolfolk, 1980). There are four steps involved in observational learning: - Attention: - it is importa nt for learning to take place effectively. Retention: - it is the ability to store the information and recall it later. Reproduction: - it involves practising the learnt behaviour. Motivation: - Motivation to imitate the behaviour of the model depends on reinforcement and punishment. After this behavioural explanation of learning, bandura has focused on cognitive factors such as beliefs, self - perceptions and expectations, so his theory is called Social - Cognitive theory. This theory distinguishes between enactive learning and vicarious learning. Enactive learning is basically learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of your doing. “In enactive learning , the consequences are seen as providing information. Our interpretation of the consequences cr eates expectations, influence motivation and shape beliefs" (Schunk, 2000). Vicarious learning is learning by observation. People can learn by observing others. If they learn by watching they 5 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ must be focusing their attention, remembering and analyzing so it includes the cognitive process. According to Bandura (1986) "Observational learning includes four elements: paying attention, retaining information or impressions, producing behaviours, and being motivated to repeat the behaviour. Bandura put forward ‘ reciprocal determinism' . According to him, both internal and external factors are important in social cognitive theory. An individual's behaviour (actions, choices etc.), physical and social en vironment and personal qualities (beliefs, expectations, attitudes etc.) all influence each other reciprocally. This interaction is called reciprocal determinism. 3.2 Experiential Learning : It is based on the social and constructivist approach of learning but the experience is situated at the core of the learning process. Carl Rogers is an influential proponent of this theory. He distinguishes two type of learning1) Cognitive learning 2) Experimental learning. He proposed learning as ‘self - initiated learn ing' which required personal involvement. It also includes the evaluation of learning by the learner. According to him, experimental learning occurs when a learner knows the difference between what they know and what they need to know. The learner develops an internal connection with the knowledge from which their experience is enhanced, so experiential learning is about self - development and personal change. Rogers believed that people want to learn and have the natural spirit to acquire knowledge so, in th is model; the learner actively participates and can control the learning process. The teacher plays the role of facilitator in this type of learning. So in nutshell the Constructivist school of thought views learning as follows: Knowledge can be construct ed individually or socially. (Here individually indicates the Piagetian view and social construction indicates the Vygotsky and Bandura's views). In individual views, knowledge is built on what the learner brings and in the social construction view knowled ge is built on what participants contribute and construct together. In individual constructivism, view learning is actively constructed and reconstructed turning to prior knowledge. It occurs when multiple opportunities and diverse processes are connected with already known. In the social constructivist view 6 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Learning is the collaborative construction of socially defined knowledge and values which occurs through socially constructed opportunities. In an individual view, teaching is a challenge that guides t owards a more complete understanding. In the social construction view teaching is the co - construction of knowledge with learners. Learners are active constructer of knowledge, active thinker, explainer, interpreter and questioner in individual view. In the social constructivist view learners are co - constructer of knowledge with others and self - active thinker, explainer, interpreter, questioner and active social participator. In individual view, the teacher is a facilitator and guide who listen to students for their ideas, conception and thinking. In the social construction view apart from guide and facilitator teacher is also a co - participant and co - constructer of knowledge who listen to socially constructed conceptions. In individual view, role of peers i s not necessary but they can stimulate thinking and can raise questions. In the social construction view, peers are an ordinary part of the process of knowledge construction. 2 . Write any four classroom activities that involve critical thinking. Ans - To be able to become a critical thinker, a learner has to identify the problem and gathered relevant information about it. We can collect the information from various sources and can take several opinions that present different ideas and point of views. The l earner must see if the source of information is reliable or if the information is enough. After that learner analyzed the problem and reflect on it. After analyses learner looking at the logical structure of the argument to ensure its validity and identify the various conclusion that is possible and make a decision about which of them are sufficient. Using this process a learner makes the well - thought decision to complex problems. Critical thinking helps the learner in many ways -- Critical thinking enables learners to evaluate their own thinking and behaviour. Learners think logically and decide for themselves and for the community. Critical thinking makes learners rationale so that they can challenge the social, cultural, economic and political in e qualities and can take actions. 7 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Role of Teacher in Developing Critical Thinking In order to develop critical thinking skills in learners a teacher needs to: Encourage to question and challenge existing beli efs, structure and practices. Try to engage the m in critical thinking processes. Provide opportunities for inquiry. Give learner responsibility for analysis and evaluation. Give feedback about their actions, analysis and evaluation. Avoid offering 'how to do' Use learner's personal experiences as st arting points for gathering information. Developing the confidence in learners to work with others in taking critical action. Encourage learners to generate alternative solutions. 3 . What is reflective thinking? In what way it is different from critical t hinking? Ans - Learning and Reflective Thinking How Reflective thinking different from other types of thinking? John Dewey was the first one to explain this. According to John Dewey (1993) "Reflective thinking is an active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the ground that supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends”. Basically, reflective thinking is essential for developing a new perspective, developing a questioning attitude. It helps to growth of an individual in many differ ent aspects including cognitively, emotionally and morally. Reflective thinking helps to determine the strength and weaknesses of a learner by allowing questioning values and beliefs recognize and challenge the biases and assumptions, find the area of impr ovement. Reflection is self - awareness. People think about themselves and their experiences learn from their experiences and improve some areas of life. People often keep a journal or diary to write about their experiences and make sense of them. Advantage s of Reflection on Learning Reflective learning helps the learner to relate new knowledge to their prior understanding. It helps them to understand their own thinking and learning strategies that they can apply in novel tasks. Besides these benefits of re flecting on learning is as follows: 8 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Examine what you have learned and how you have learned it. Demonstrate how your thinking grows and develops over time. Assist with making connections between what you already know and what you are learning. Help you learn from mistakes by identifying how you would do things differently next time. Encourage you to become a reflective practitioner in your future career Learning and Critical Thinking " Critical thinking' is one of the widely discussed concepts in educational discourse these days. The term critical thinking is defined by many philosopher and thinker over a different period of time. John Dewey ( 1910) restricted it to constructive thinking on the basis of his own experiments and observation. Edward Gl aser ( 1941) pointed that "the ability to think critically, involves three major things: ( 1) an attitude of being disposed to consider thoughtfully the problems and subjects that come within the range of one's experiences, ( 2) knowledge of the methods of lo gical inquiry and reasoning and ( 3) some skill in applying those methods”. Scriven and Paul ( 1987) defined critical thinking as a process in which we "conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or gener ated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning or communication”. So, from these definitions, we can say that critical thinking is the ability to think rationally to understand the connections between ideas and facts. It can be self - directed and s elf monitored which entails effective communication and problem - solving abilities. Characteristics of a Critical Thinker It takes time, practice and patience to become a critical thinker. A critical thinker usually has these qualities: A critical thinker raises questions and formulates any problem very clearly and precisely. Gathers relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it and make well reasoned solutions. Use their reasoning skill to analyse and evaluate. Think and reflect within the c ontext of the problem. 9 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Communicate effectively with others and plan strategically to find out the solutions. Generate innovative solutions 4 . Describe the role of the teacher in note - taking. Ans – Role of Teachers in Note Taking 1. Explanation of key concepts in assigned readings : Teachers frequently have a sense of the issues that students have in reading tasks and try to aid by discussing in a simpler or different language about particular themes than those used in the book. The teacher may give a le cture , display a film documentary, or invite a visiting lecturer. In such circumstances, students need to focus on the significance of the message, not the speaker or language being used, so that they are as comprehensive as possible. Moreover, the students must determine whether to take notes either because their teacher needs them to do so or because their understanding of the material is not good. 2. Providing information that is not included in th e textbook: Teachers often provide information not available in textbooks of pupils. The text may not adequately cover a certain topic , thus the teacher supplements it with additional information, or the text may be out of date , thus the teacher gives more recent material. Or the teacher may wish to create attention by providing marginally relevant, yet colourful material to a topic that is blandly discussed in the textbook. In each case, teachers provide material for what they think to be good for their st udents. Often this type of information is provided in a conversational manner; the students not only need to listen closely to understand it but also have to determine whether they need it afterwards and should take notes. 3. Conducting demonstrations: De monstrations are used by teachers in almost all subject areas to demonstrate or explain concepts and ideas, as well as to uncover new concepts and ideas. We usually link demonstrations with the natural sciences but they can also be found in other subjects. A social science teacher may have a guest speaker talk about a foreign culture and demonstrate artifacts from it, or a language arts teacher may deliver a speech demonstrating the consequences of emotionally loaded vocabulary. Again, students need to list en and take notes to understand the importance of the demonstration. 10 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ 4. Explaining assignments: Teachers offer homework almost every day of the week. They are the primary methods by which teachers assess their students' progress. In view of their importan ce, students must pay close attention when the teacher announces an assignment and explains how to complete it because of its relevance. 5 . Distinguish between the SQR 3 reading strategy and the KWL reading strategy. Ans - 1. The SQR 3 Reading Strategy SQR 3 is a well - known strategy for reading. SQR 3 can be applied to a whole range of reading purposes as it is flexible and takes into account the need to change reading speeds. SOR 3 is an abbreviation that stands for: Survey Question Read Recall Review Survey - This survey is about skimming, scanning, and speed - reading the content. You will be striving to obtain a broad understanding of the topic at this point. Question - It is crucial that you have a question or series of questions that will lead you be fore you begin reading - why am I reading this? When you read for a specific goal, you want to absorb and remember certain information. Having questions changes reading from a passive to an active pursuit. Read - At this point, you will be ready to begin t he major activity of reading. This entails giving serious thought to the meaning of what the author tries to communicate and involves being critical as well as active. Recall - No matter how engaging an article or chapter is, you will forget a lot of the crucial elements unless you make a serious effort to remember what you have just read. Recalling from time to time enables you to concentrate on the most important details, which improves attention. Recalling allows you to reflect on and digest what you've just read, keeping you engaged. A significant element in being active is to write down the major ideas in your own words 11 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Review - The final step is to go through the stuff you remembered in your notes. Did you understand the key points of the argument? D id you identify all of the points? Are there any gaps? Do not assume that yo u have remembered all you need go over the content again to double - check and clarify. 2. KWL Reading Strategy KWL is a way to help you read and understand a text. You can do it on your own, but group conversations are beneficial. It is made up of only three steps, which are as follows: The letter K stands for Know Before you begin reading, consider what you alre ady know about the subject and write it down in the first column, labelled K'. If at all feasible, discuss with others. The letter W stands for Want to know In the W column list the things you wish to learn about the topic. Make a list of questions. Thes e questions will help you focus your attention during reading. The letter L stands for Learned The final stage is to answer your questions, as well as to list what new information you have learned. You can do this either while reading or after you have f inished. 6 . Discuss several types of mnemonics with examples. Ans - Mnemonics Sometimes long lists of words might be tough to recall, which is when memory strategies can help. A mnemonic is a memory technique that helps somebody in the recall of information. Mnemonics are memory aids that employ rhymes, acronyms, diagrams, and other strategies to help people remember names, dates, facts, figures and more. Mnemonic is also considered a learning approach that helps students to organise, retain, and remember vast amounts of information. Teachers may utilise it in the classroom to assist pupils to remember and understand lists, words, and ideas that might otherwise be difficult to remember and recall. 12 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Mnemonics Strategy Keyword Mnemonics: Students may find it simpler to learn new vocabulary words and facts if they associate the new information with something they already know. The keyword technique connects a new term or notion with a well - known and comparable word. The student creates a v isual image depicting this connection, which makes the new information easier to store and retrieve as needed. This method is very effective for teaching difficult new vocabulary words. Pegword Rhyming Mnemonics: Another effective technique to integrate n ew information with known information is to use pegwords, words on which new information may "hang." Using this strategy, the student learns rhymes that can be readily related to new words, facts, or numbers. For example, it can help students in the social studies classroom to recall crucial dates and facts Acronym Mnemonics: One of the most popular and extensively utilised mnemonic techniques is acronyms. Using this strategy students memorise a single word in which each letter corresponds to a key piece of information. This letter - association technique is particularly effective for recalling brief lists of things or items. For instance: If a teacher teaching the different steps of the scientific method, he/she may use the acronym mnemonic 'HOMER' to keep in mind steps in order: hypothesize, operationalize, measure, evaluate and replicate. Acrostic Letter Sentence Mnemonics: Acrostic letter mnemonics are similar to acronyms, except that instead of memorising a word, pupils need to remember a simple silly s tatement. Each word in the phrase begins with a letter that corresponds to a key fact that they strive to recall. This is another excellent method for helping students in remembering a number of interrelated information. Combination Mnemonics: It is also possible to combine mnemonic approaches for example, combine keywords and acronyms to create an extra - effective mnemonic super strategy. Assume your pupils are attempting to learn crucial facts about the Civil War. To assist students to remember the infor mation, you may make a map - like display and add mnemonics to it. Use keywords to recall battle names, acrostic letter sentences to recall events in sequence, and pegword rhymes to recall major Civil War characters. 13 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Advantages of Using Mnemonics They act as a memory bridge, allowing you to recall information that might otherwise be difficult to remember. They involve rearranging or restructuring information, which helps you customise the information and become a more active learner. They make learning mor e interesting by providing new methods to deal with information 7 . What is the importance of Dialogue as a reflective tool? Ans - Dialogue - The term reflection has been used in many different ways with a variety of meanings. It has become a multi - faceted concept (Tsang, 1998). Sometimes an author may talk about the process of reflection. Others may talk about the skills, methods, conditions an d outcomes of reflection. The heart of the matter is a concern with enhancing the awareness of one's assumptions, values and intentions embedded in practice, and the various social, cultural and psychological forces shaping these assumptions and values. Th e scholars also discuss various ways to promote reflection. Brookfield ( 1995) proposes the use of four lenses by teachers: autobiographies; students' feedback; collégial discussions; and readings of literature. Evans ( 1999) makes similar suggestions in u sing critical incident analysis, reflective diary/journal/log, and strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis for practice learning in the caring professions. The reflective process can be conducted either by the individual student/pr actitioner or by the student/practitioner in interaction with the supervisor or colleagues. Doel et al. ( 2002) advocate the use of a portfolio as an instrument for promoting such reflection. They suggest that the portfolio is to be construed as an 'invita tion to a dialogue'. The only concern is the quality of such dialogue that depends on the ability of the learner to raise pertinent questions which are conducive to learning. For example, a student may observe the practice teacher working with clients in r eal life. In doing this, the student has the opportunity to observe and understand the style, method, model and values of the practice teacher. The reflective dialogue before and after the observation is essential to bring about that understanding. 14 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ There can be two types of Dialogue: ( 1) Internal dialogue, and ( 2) External dialogue 1. Internal Dialogue - We may find ourselves 'talking within ourselves' even in the absence of another person in various moments of life. We do this when we want to make sense of events and experience. We do the same when we want to consider various options by asking ourselves 'should I do this or that?' We give self - assurance by saying 'go ahead, there is nothing to lose'. We search for meaning by asking ourselves 'what for?' T he ability to speak within ourselves with different voices constitutes what Ho et al. ( 2001) call the 'dialogical self'. Prognosis' as a form of practical wisdom is suggested in the Aristotelian tradition in seeking universal truths. It says that, one sho uld pay due respect to both localized knowledge derived by reasoning in particularities and generalized theories, engaging the two in dialogue with one another. Practitioners should acquire prognosis to help them decide on the best course of action in part icular circumstances. More recent scholarship by Mead and Vygotsky (Nienkamp, 1995) brings in the social dimension in internal rhetoric. The ‘ self entails the voice from the social environments that constitute the 'Me' (Mead) or the 'superego' (Freud). It happens through the process of socialisation. 2. External Dialogue - We seek help from outside when we cannot find any solution in our internal dialogue. A mentor, a close friend or a chat group provide the venue where we can give voice to our ambivalence, test out our ideas and hear another point of view. Such views may shed light on our inner confusion or add weight to a particular option in settling the inner struggles. Burbules ( 1993) takes the concept of dialogue to develop his pedagogical approach and deliberates on the use of dialogue in teaching. His notion of dialogue is essentially external. To him, dialogue is open - ended and relational. He notes that 'dia' means 'between, across, and through, spanning or connecting', and 'logos' means 'thought, re ason, judgment' (Burbules, 1993). This takes place within a relationship between two persons that involves attitude, emotions and expectations towards one another. Each person should be ready to listen, understand and consider the views of the other, with an openness and willingness to change, and modify his or her own tentative point of view (Burbules, 1993). 15 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Other examples of promoting reflection by external dialogue can be seen as suggestions for talking to students and colleagues. The teacher can enga ge students or colleagues in reflective dialogue. Students as the audience can talk back to the teacher through various means. They may write about their learning experiences in a reflective log or give feedback on course evaluation forms. They can talk t o the teacher in the office or the coffee lounge. As participants in the teaching and learning processes, they are key informants to give feedback to the teacher on the impact of the teaching and the uniqueness of the teaching styles. Colleagues provide an other perspective. Collégial discussion is on a more equal basis. Colleagues may ask critical questions and propose diametrically opposite views in examining various issues of concern. They can identify blind spots from an insider's view, somewhat differen t from that of the students. Advantages: Dialogue helps learners to: understand what they already know (individual) identify what they need to know in order to enhance understanding of the subject ( contextual) make sense of new information and feedback in the context of their own experience ( relational) Guide choices for further learning (developmental) > Allows us as teachers, leaders or support staff to intervene in the learning process by giving instant feedback and guidance to our students. It is th e foundation of learning because it allows interaction and engagement with knowledge and with the ideas of others. It is one of the best vehicles for learning how to think, how to be reasonable, how to make moral decisions and how to understand another per son's point of view. It helps in developing a climate of trust and support. Dialogue develops language and helps participants know how to better express their ideas and understanding. 16 All Rights reserved Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ 8 . What are the advantages and limitations of Action Research? Ans - Action Research - A large proportion of the current debates about education, focus upon the competence of the teachers. A huge onus lies on the teachers to bring significant change in the transaction of the teaching - learning process and also with respect to whole school dev elopment. And for this, the teacher has to be a reflective practitioner. Action research is one of the ways towards the continuous professional development of a teacher. But it has to be made clear at the outset that action research is just not limited to the education process. Action research was born when social scientists and practitioners, "concerned not only with the generation of scientific knowledge but also with its usefulness in solving practical problems, and worked to bridge the gap between theor y and practice” (Selener, 1997). Kurt Lewin has coined the term for the purpose of solving social problems. His work is generally taken as the starting point where he has recognised the important role of participation in planned change processes, and cons tructed an action research theory, describing action research as "proceeding in a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of planning, action and the evaluation of the result of action" (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988). This spiral or the cyclical process inv olved a non - linear pattern of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting on the changes in the social situations. Action research as an appro