The Etymology of Local Names With a short introduction to the relationship of languages. Teutonic names. - Richard Morris

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there is always the desire to retain them in the memory by some principle of association, and this leads to an inquiry concerning their origin and history, or when and why they were imposed. The study of place- names is one, then, of great interest to the historian and to the teacher. The signification of a single name throws much light upon the history of nations and their migrations. In point of fact, there is often more dependence to be placed upon words than upon history; for, says Halberstma, it pleases not the muse of history to speak but late, and then in a very confused manner: yet she often deceives; and before she comes to maturity she seldom distinctly tells us the truth. Language never deceives, but speaks more distinctly, though removed to a higher antiquity. The object of the following pages is to supply teachers with the chief root or key-words which are necessary for the explanation of local names in England, and such kindred forms as are to be met with in those countries occupied by nations belonging to the same family, and usually termed Teutonic. It is a well-known fact that many of the names of places in England are also common to Germany. Verstegan, in his scarce work, printed in 1605, very plainly alludes to it. “Thus the Saxons,” he says, “who at first came unto the aid of the Britons, became about two hundred years after, to be the possessors and sharers of the best part of the Isle of Britain among themselves. And, as their language was altogether different from that of the Britons, so left they very few cities, towns, villages, passages, rivers, woods, fields, hills, or dales that they gave not new names unto, such as in their own language were intelligible, and either given by reason of the situation or nature of the place, or after some place in some sort like unto it in Germany, from whence they came—as the name of Oxford or Oxenford, on the river Thames, after the town of the same name in Germany, situated on the Oder; our Hereford, near unto Wales, after Hervford, in Westphalia. And so, in like manner, may be said of Stafford, Swinford, Bradford, Norden, Newark, Bentham, Oxenbridge, Buchurst, Scorethorpe, Holt, Mansfield, Swinefield, Daventry, Hampstead, Radcliff, Rosendale, and a great number of places in our country, that yet retain the names of places in Germany and the Netherlands (albeit the ancient orthography may in some of them be a little varied), as here to be reckoned up would be tedious.” We have chosen English names as the basis of comparison because they are more familiar, and, indeed, of more importance than any others. Emerson, speaking of them, says—“The names are excellent; an atmosphere of legendary melody spreads over the land. Older than all epics and histories, which clothe a nation, this under-shirt sits close to the body. What history, too, and what stores of primitive and savage observation, it unfolds!” The names of places in England, and among the Teutonic tribes generally, are composed of two parts. The first member is a descriptive word referring to some particular historical circumstance, to personages, to animals, vegetables, or minerals; or it may be merely an adjective. The second member designates, by some general and appropriate term, either the natural features of the country, settlement, or neighbourhood to be described—as hill, mountain, river, &c.—or some artificial constructions, as town, borough, field, &c. The first member is generally prefixed to distinguish places having similar positions —e.g., Staple-ford, Notting-ham, New-ark, &c. Sometimes the names of places are represented by a single word—e.g., Slough, Ford, Holt, Down, Berg, Furt, &c. All places do not admit of explanation. Those ending with Ing or having after it Ham or Ton, are derived from the names of tribes, families, or individuals. The subject is naturally divided into— I.—The Descriptive Element. (a) Names of Personages (Historical or Mythical). (b) Animals. (c) Vegetables. (d) Minerals. (e) Adjectives. II.—The General Element. (a) Water, River, Brook, &c. (b) Mountain, Hill, &c. (c) Valley, Plain, &c. (d) Habitations. DIVISION I. DESCRIPTIVE ELEMENT. (A) NAMES OF TRIBES, FAMILIES, INDIVIDUALS, AND GODS. (a) Tribes. (1) GERMAN.—This name was not applied to the people of Germany by themselves, but they received it from the Celts on account of their terrible war cry. The root of the word is the Celtic verb Gairmean, “to cry out.” (2) DUTCH (Deutsch).—This term, which is now applied to the people of Holland, is literally an adjective signifying “popular” (Diut-isc). It was originally applied to the language of the Teutonic people in order to distinguish it from the Latin. The word TEUTONES, the Latin form of the native word Theotisci, Teutisci, &c., is derived from the Gothic root Diut, a “people or nation.” It occurs in the modern name TEUT-o-berger. The following tribes have left their names as an element of local nomenclature:— (3) ANGRIVARI, in ANGERN, ENGERN, ANGER-munde. (4) ANGLES, in ANGLES-ey, ENG-land, ANGELN, HUNGER-ford (ANGLES-ford). (5) ARAVISCI in the river RAAB, anciently ARABO. (6) BURGUNDIANS, in BURGUNDY. (7) CHERUSCI (Crherstini) in the HARTZ mountains, HARTZ-burg, and HERZ-burg. The root seems to be the Gothic Har, Haruc, “a temple.” In the poem of Beo-Wulf it occurs as the name of the great palatial hall of Hrothgar. (8) CAUCI, in CUX-haven. (9) CATTI, in HESSE. (10) EUDOSES, in EYD-er, EUD-ing, and DOSSE. (11) FRISIANS, in FRIES-land, FRIS-by, and FRIS-thorpe. (12) GOTHS, in GOTH-land, GOTHEN-burg, GOTH-a. (13) LANGOBARDI, in LOMBARDY, BARDEN-gan, BARD-wick. (14) MONAVI (Menapi), in MAN, MONA, and MENAI straits. (15) SAXONS, in Es-SEX (East Saxons), Sus-SEX (South Saxons), Middle-SEX (Middle Saxons), HOLSTEIN —i.e., Holt SASSEN, or Olt SASSEN, “Old Settlers.” The inhabitants of Holstein were called HOLSATI or Holzati, from the Platt-Deutsch Sitten, Satten “to sit.” (16) SUIONES, SUEVI, in SWEDEN, SUABIA, ODER, at one time called SUEVUS, and the VIADRUS, whose mouth is still called SWINE-mund. (17) SUARDONES, in SCHWART-au. (18) THURINGI, in THURINGIAN-wald. (19) RUGII, in the island of RUGEN. (20) LEMOVII, in the river LEBA. (21) DULGIBINI, in the river DULMEN. (22) SITONES, in SIGTUN, SITUN. (b) Families. The names of families and individuals enter largely into the composition of local names. They may be easily discovered by the particle ING before HAM, TON, HALL, &c. Thus BIRMING-ham was originally the home of the BEORMINGAS, the descendants of Beorm; BALDING-ham of the BAEDLINGAS; BUCKING-ham of the BUCINGAS; LITTLING-ton was originally the enclosed residence of the LYTHINGAS; ELVING-ton of the ELFINGAS, and KILLING-hall the fortified residence of the CYLINGAS. Professors Leo and Kemble have thrown much light on this subject; the latter writer has furnished us with a valuable list of these family names in his Saxons in England. The following extract from the pen of Mr. Wright will be of some service to the students of names:— The family or clan did not always take its name from the chief who obtained the allotment of land; it was often but a branch of a much older family in the land from which the settlement came. Hence we find patronymics in distant parts of England, which would seem to indicate that different members of the same original family had joined in various separate expeditions to Britain; and it is still more curious that this identity of name is found in districts peopled severally by the different races, Angles, Saxons, or Jutes. This admits of two explanations; it shows the close relationship between the three races themselves, and it proves, probably, that when a great chieftain of one race, an Angle, for instance, planned an expedition to Britain, subordinate leaders from the other Saxons, Jutes, or others, were ready to enlist among his followers. Thus we find the BILLINGAS at BILLING-ham in Durham, at BILLING-ley in Yorkshire, at BILLING-hay in Lincolnshire, at BILLING-ton in the counties of Bedford, Stafford, and Lancaster, as well as at other places, all within the district occupied by the Angles. We find a settlement of the same family at BILLING-hurst, in Sussex, and some of them appear to have established themselves in the outskirts of London, and to have given name to BILLINGS-gate. (There was a family of BILLUNG on the Continent; and Hermann Billung was invested with the Duchy of Saxony by Otto I. In 1106 the male line of this house became extinct on the death of the last Billung, Duke Magnus, who left two daughters, Eilike and Wulfhild; Wulfhild was married to Henry of Bavaria, surnamed the Black, a descendant of the Guelph family.) The BOSINGAS are found at BOSING-ham in Kent, and again at the two BOSSINGTONS in Hampshire and Somerset. The SCEARINGAS are found at SHARRING-ton, SHERING-ford, and SHARRING-ton in Norfolk, SHEERING in Essex, at SCARRING-ton in Nottinghamshire, and at SHEERING-ton in Buckingham and Wiltshire. We have the HANINGAS at three places named HANNING- ton in Northamptonshire, Herefordshire, and Wiltshire, and also probably at HANNING-field in Essex. When we examine further we find in these patronymics, names which belong to the great families whose history is mixed up in the earliest Teutonic mythology. The WAELSINGS, who are found at WALSING-ham in Norfolk, at WOLSING-ham in Durham, and at WOOLSING-ton in Northumberland, appear to have been offsets of the great family of the VOLSUNGAR of the Edda, and the VOLSUNGEN of the old German romances. The HARLINGS (Herelingas), who are found at three places named HARLING-ton in Middlesex, Bedfordshire, and Yorkshire, as well as at HARLING in Norfolk, are also connected with the ancient Teutonic mythology, and their name is found at HARLINGEN in Friesland. The SWAEFAS, a tribe who was known to have dwelt on the borders of the Angles on the Continent, appear to have given their name to SWAFF-ham in Norfolk. Mr. Kemble, quoting other well known names from the mythic and half mythic history of the continental Teutons, points out as further instances, that the BRENTINGS of the northern romance are found in England at BRENTING-ley in Leicestershire, and at BRANTING-ham in Yorkshire. The SCYLDINGS and SCYLFINGS, celebrated northern races, give their name to SKELDING, and to two places named SKILLING-ton in Northumberland and Dorsetshire. The ARDINGS, who are found at ARDING-ton in Berkshire, and at ARDING-ley in Sussex, are, he says, the AZDINGI, the royal race of the Visigoths and Vandals; and the BANINGS of the Continent, over whom, when the curious Anglo-Saxon fragment called the Traveller’s Song was written, a Prince named Becca ruled, are recognised in BANNING-ham in Norfolk. The HELSINGS gave name to HELSING-ton in Westmoreland, and to HELSING-land in Sweden; and we find the name of the BLECINGAS as well in BLECKINGEN in Sweden as in BLETCHING-ton in Oxfordshire and BLETCHING-ley in Surrey. In the GYTINGAS found at GUYTING in Gloucestershire, we perhaps trace the JUTUNGI of Germany; and another Alamannic tribe, the SCUDINGI, are supposed to be traced in the SCYTINGS, who gave their name to SHUTTING-ton in Warwickshire.— (The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon.) (c) Individuals. The names of persons, especially those of princes and great landowners, constitute a very large element in local nomenclature. The name of ELLA is found in ELLES-mere (ELLA’S-lake); and in ELLES-croft (the field of ELLA); and that of his son CISSA is found in CHI-chester (CISSAN-ceaster, the fortified residence of CISSA), and in CIS-bury, the city of CISSA. CERDIC is remembered in CHAR-ford (CERDIC’S-ford), and in CHEARS-ley (CERDIC’S-meadow). BEBBA, the Queen of Ida, has left her name in BAM-borough (BEBBA’S city —Bebban-burg). The Christian prince OSWALD, who was slain in battle, and fell at a particular place near Maserfield, has left his name in OSWES-try, or OSWALD’S-tree. The name of the Danish King CANUTE is found in KNUTS-ford (CANUTE’S-ford), CNUTS-delf (CANUTE’S-ditch), and in CANEW-don (CANUTE’S-hill). Danish names are a very important element of the local names in the North of England—e.g., ORMS-kirk, WORMS-head, ORMES-by and UNST (Ormst), derive their names from some Scandinavian leader Orm or Urm. The name of RAFN or RAVEN is found in RAVEN-side (the seat or residence of RAVEN), and in RAVEN- stone (the stone of RAVEN). ULLER has given his name to ULLERS-thorpe, HUBBA to HUBBER-sty, and ULFR to ULLES-water and ULVER-stone. Numerous other examples might be given of names of Danish origin, but many of them will be noticed as we proceed. The following places are derived from the names of the original possessor—e.g., AYMES-try, Elmod’s-tree. EL-ton, Elnod’s-town. PAD-stow, Adel’s-dwelling-place. LEVER-ton, Leofric’s-town. EPS-om (EBBIS-ham), Epha’s-home. WOOFFER-ton, Widferd’s-town. MALMS-bury, St. Maidulph’s-city. WIL-ley, Willaf ’s-meadow. OFF-ham, Offa’s-home. (d) Names of Gods. It is well known that the ancient Teutonic tribes were heathens, and that in their original settlements they worshipped Odin, Thor, Tiw, &c., whose names are still preserved, not only in the days of the week, but in the names of numerous places. WUOTAN, WODEN, or Odin, the presiding deity of the Northern nations, has his name preserved in O- dean, WOODEN-dean, (ODIN’S-hollow), WOODS-dale (ODIN’S-vale); WEDNES-bury and WAN-borough (ODIN’S-city); WEDNES-field (ODIN’S-field); WAM-pool (ODIN’S-pool); WAM-brook (ODIN’S-brook); WON- stone (ODIN’S-stone); WANS-ford (ODIN’S-ford); WANS-beck (ODIN’S-rivulet); WAN-stead (ODIN’S- residence); WENS-ley-fold (ODIN’S-meadow-enclosure); WANS-dike (ODIN’S-ditch); ODIN’S-wald (ODIN’S- forest); ODEN-se (ODIN’S-lake.) The name of his wife, FRIGGA, FREA, or FREYJA, occurs in FREYS-torp, in FRIDAY-thorpe, and FRAIS-thorpe (FRIGGA’S-city.) We are reminded of THOR by such places as THOR-up and THORS-torp (THOR’S-city); THORs-dal and TURS-dale (THOR’S-vale); TOR-ness (THOR’S-promontory); THURS-by, and THURSO-by (THOR’S-town); THURDYS-toft (THOR’S-field); TOR-boll (THOR’S-dwelling); Kirby-Thore (Church of THOR); THURS-ley, and THUR-ley (THOR’S-meadow); THORS-aa (THOR’S-stream). Thor was also known by the names of DONAR (THUNOR) and HAMAR, which occurs in THUNDERS-field (THOR’S-field); and in THUNDERS-ley (THOR’S-meadow); in HAMER-ton and HOMER-ton (THOR’S-town); HAMER-ton-kirk (THOR’S-town-Church); HAMER-wick (THOR’S-marsh); and in HAMER-stein (THOR’S-stone). The name of BALDER, the son of Odin, and god of light, is still preserved in BALDERS-ley (the meadow of BALDER); BALDERS-dale (BALDER’S-vale); BOLDRE-wood (BALDER’S-wood); and in BALDERS-haye (BALDER’S-enclosure); that of BRAGE, the god of orators, in BRAG-naes (BRAGE-naes, the promontory of BRAGE). The god of war and of champions, TEU, TIW, or TYR, has his name conferred upon TEWES-ley, and TEW-ing (the meadow of TEW), and upon TYE-hall and TYE-farm. LOK appears in LOX-wood, LOX-field, and in LOCK-ing. SEATOR appears in SATTER-leigh, SATTER-thwaite, and in SATTER-land. Perhaps local names are indebted to the fairy mythology. MAB, the elf queen, occurs in MAB’S-hill, and the merry PUCK in PUCK-pool Bay, POOCK-burne (PUCKE-ridge), POOCK-hill, and PUCKE-tye. GRIM-a, a ghost, hag, or witch, is found in GRIMS-by, GRIMS-bury, GRIMMS-hoo, GRIMS-how, and in GRIMS-ditch. It is the safest plan, however, in tracing local names to their origin, to resort to such a mode for their explanation only when we find ourselves unable to offer a more rational etymology—that is to say, one in harmony with their natural or historical associations. (B) NAMES OF ANIMALS. The names of animals which enter largely into geographical nomenclature need little explanation; most of them, being familiar, may be easily identified. NATE, NET (Scandinavian) horned cattle; NEAT (English), occurs in NATE-ly, NAT-land, and NATE-ly Scures. The WILD BOAR, in Anglo-Saxon EVER (éofer, ebur, efer), is found in EVER-shaw, the wild boar’s field; EVER-shot, EVERS-holt, the wild boar’s wood; EVERS-don, the wild boar’s hill; EVER-ton, the wild boar’s town or enclosure. EVER-leigh, EVER-ley, the wild boar’s meadow. EBER, the German form of this root, occurs in EBER-stein, the wild boar’s stone; EBER-bach, the wild boar’s stream; EBERS-berg, the wild boar’s hill; EBER-ach, the wild boar’s dwelling by the stream. The BEAR (BAR, BARIN in German) no doubt was an inhabitant of the following places:— BAR-walde, the bear’s forest; BAR-uth, the bear’s region; BAREN-spring, the bear’s spring; BAREN-wald-a, the bear’s forest by the stream; BAREN-horst, the bear’s thicket. In the following places we find the name of the BADGER (BROC, BAW, BAUD, BAG, BADGE, in Anglo- Saxon, and DACHS in German):— BAG-shot, BAG-borough, BADGEN-don, BADGE-worth, BAGIN-thorpe, BAUGH-hurst, BAWS-ley, BAW-burgh, BAUD-rip, BAUDS-ly, BROCK-ley, the badger’s meadow; BROX-bourne, the badger’s stream; BROX-ton, BROC-ton, the badger’s town; BROCK-thorp, the badger’s village; BROCK-holes, the badger’s caves; BROCK-les-by, the badger’s abode of the spring; BROCK-dish, the badger’s ditch; BROC-den, the badger’s hollow; DACH-stein, the badger’s stone; DACHS-berg, the badger’s hill. The BEAVER (in German, BIBER), occurs in BEVER-ley, the beaver’s meadow; BEVER-born, the beaver’s stream; BIBER-ach, BIBR-a, the beaver’s abode on the stream. The Dutch form of the root BEVER occurs in BEVER-en (in the province of East Flanders), and in BEVER-n (in the duchy of Brunswick), both signifying the beaver’s river isle. The BUCK (BUCCA, in Anglo-Saxon) may be traced in BUCKEN-ham, the buck’s home; BUCK-den, the buck’s hollow; BICK-leigh, the buck’s meadow; BOCK-field, the buck’s field; BU-cup, the buck’s hollow; BUCK-low, the buck’s hill; BOK-hurst, the buck’s forest; BUCK-land, the buck’s district; BICKN-or, the buck’s border; BUC-kle, the buck’s spring. The low German form is BUCK, the High German, BOCK—e.g., BOCEN-em, BOCCEN-heim, BOCK-um, the buck’s home; BOC-holt, the buck’s wood. The COW (Cu, Cy) may be found in COWS-ley, COW-ley, COW-leaze, CUERD-ley, the cow’s meadow; KAY-land, cow district; CO-dale, the cow’s vale; COS-grove, the cow’s grove; CO-ton, COW-ton, the cow’s town; CO-stock, COW-fold, the cow’s fence or enclosure. The OX may be traced in OXN-ead; OX-ton, the town of the ox; OX-ley, the meadow of the ox; OX-ford, the ford of the ox; OX-fold, the enclosure of the ox; OCHSEN-werder, the island of the ox; OXN-ey, the island of the ox; OX-stones, the heights of the ox; OXEN-hope, the shelter of the ox; OCHSEN-furt, the ford of the ox; OCHSEN-kopf, the summit of the ox. The CALF (CIELF) occurs in KELVE-don, the calf ’s hill; CALVER-ley, the calf ’s meadow. The HART (HEORT), in German HIRSCH, is found in HART-fold, the hart’s enclosure; HERT-ford, HART-ford, the hart’s ford; HART-ing, the hart’s meadow; HARTS-bath, the hart’s bathing place; HART-burn, the hart’s stream; HARTEN-stein, the hart’s stone; HIRSCH-au, the hart’s meadow; HIRSCH-berg, the hart’s hill; HIRSCH-horn, the hart’s angle; HIRSCH-feld, the hart’s field. The KID (in Anglo-Saxon TIC, TYCH, and in German ZIEGE), appears in KID-land, KID-sty, KIDDER-minster, TICE-hurst, the kid’s forest; TITCHEN-worth, the kid’s farm; TITCH-borne, the kid’s stream; TICK-ton, the kid’s town; TITCH-marsh, the kid’s marsh; TICKEN-ham, the kid’s home; ZIEGEN-hayn, the kid’s wood; ZIEGEN-hals, the kid’s castle; ZIEGEN-ruck, the kid’s ridge. In STAGS-den and STAGS-bath we see the name of the STAG; in DUR-ness, DEER-hurst, DEAR-ham, DYR- have, DAR-field, DERE-ham, we find some form of the modern word DEER, with a more general signification. Like its Gothic and German cognates, it denoted any wild animal. The GOAT (GAET) occurs as an element in the formation of the following names:— GOAD-land, GAT-acre, the goat’s field; GAT-ford, the goat’s ford; GAT-combe, the goat’s valley; GEIS-mar; GEISEN-hein; GEIS-ingen; YAT-ton, the goat’s town. The HARE (HARA) is found in HARE-stane, the hare’s stone; HAR-pole, the hare’s pool; HAR-bottle, the hare’s dwelling; HAR-combe, the hare’s valley. The German form, HASE, is found in HAS-lach, the hare’s lake; HAS-selt, the hare’s seat; HASS-furt, the hare’s ford; HASSE-field, the hare’s field and plain. The HORSE occurs under the forms HORS, HEST (Scandinavian) and ROSS—e.g.— HORS-ley and ROS-ley, the horse’s meadow; HORSEN-don, the horse’s hill; ROSS-thwaite, the horse’s path; HORS-ham, the horse’s home; HEST Fell, the horse’s rock or hill; HES-ket, the horse’s hut; HEST-holme, the horse’s island; HORSE-lease, the horse’s meadow; HORSE-ford, the horse’s ford; ROSS-heim, the horse’s home; ROSS-bach, the horse’s stream; ROSS-lau, the horse’s meadow; HESTEN Field, the horse’s ridge. The SHEEP (SCEP) occurs in SHIP-ley, the sheep’s meadow; SHIP-ton, the sheep’s town; SHIP-ham, the sheep’s home; SHIP-wash, the sheep’s ford; SHIP-lake, the sheep’s stream. The same root is found in SHAP-wick and SHAP-moor, SHEPPER-ton and SHEPP-ey; SKIP-ton, SKIP-sea, and SCOP-wick. The German form is SCHAF, which is found in SCHAF-berg, the sheep’s hill; SCHAF-hausen, the sheep’s house or dwelling; SCHAF-en, the sheep’s isle; SCHAF-stadt, the sheep’s place. The English WETHER (WEDER) is found in WETHER-den, WETHER-ley, WEDER-ley, WETHER-al, WETHERS-field, &c. The LAMB in LAMB-hurst, LAMBER-hurst, LAMB-ton, LAM-brook, &c. We find the Scandinavian forms for SHEEP (SAUDR and FAAR), in SOUTER-fell, SOUDEN-hill, the sheep’s hill; FAR-leigh, FARS-ley, the sheep’s meadow; FAIR-field, the sheep’s field; SOUTER-gate, the sheep’s street; FAIR-ford, the sheep’s ford; FAIR-leigh, the sheep’s meadow; FAR-a, FAR-oe, the sheep’s island. SOW (SUGU) may be traced in SUG-ley, the sow’s meadow; SO-ham, SUERS-ham, the sow’s home; SUG-gate, the sow’s street; SOWER-by, the sow’s town. SWINE in SWIN-burn, SWYN-bourne, the swine’s stream; SWIN-hope, the swine’s shelter; SWINES-co, SWINES-cot, the swine’s hut; SCHWEIN-a, the swine’s abode by the stream; SCHWEIN-furt, the swine’s ford; SCHWEINS-berg, the swine’s hill. GRIS (Scandinavian) wild swine, gives name to GRIS-dale, the wild swine’s vale; Mun-GRIS-dale, the monks’ wild swine’s vale. We may trace the WOLF in WOOLVER-hampton, the wolf ’s home-town; WOOLVIS-ton, the wolf ’s town; WOOL-hope, WOLF’S-hope, the wolf ’s shelter; WOLN-ey, the wolf ’s island; WOOLVER-den, the wolf ’s hollow; WOOL-mer, the wolf ’s lake; WOLF-ham-cote, the wolf ’s home hut; WOOL-pit the wolf ’s pit; WOOLS-ton, the wolf ’s town; WOOL-wich, the wolf ’s bay; WOL-an, the wolf ’s meadow; WOLF-ach, the wolf ’s abode by the stream; WOLF-hagen, the wolf ’s enclosure; WOLF-stein, the wolf ’s stone; WOLFEN-buttel, the wolf ’s dwelling. The FOX gives name to FOX-hole, FOX-hunt, Car-FOX, &c.; but TOD, another name for this animal, occurs in TOD-bere, the forest of the fox; TOD-hurst; TOD-burn, the stream of the fox; TOD-mor-den, the marshy hollow of the fox; TOD-wick, &c. The dog, HOUND or HUND, is found in HOUNDS-borough, the hound’s city; HOUNS-low, the hound’s hill; HUND-holm, the hound’s island; HUN-wyl, the hound’s well; HUN-ley, HUNS-ley, the hound’s town; HUN-feld, the hound’s field; HUNS-rucken, HUNDS-ruck, the hound’s ridge; HUND-loch, the hound’s hole. The SQUIRREL (DRAY) is the root of DRA-cot, DRAY-cot, the squirrel’s hut; DRAY-ton, the squirrel’s town. WANT-ley, WANTIS-den, and WANT-age, derive their name from WANT, WANAT, the mole. The names of Birds are sometimes to be met with in local nomenclature; among the most important are the following:— The EAGLE, ARL (German) in ARLS-heim, ARL-berg, EAGLES-cliffe, the eagle’s rock; EAGLE’S-hay, the eagle’s field; AYLES-bury, the eagle’s city; AYLE-stone, the eagle’s stone; EAGL-ey, the eagle’s river isle. We find some trace of the Scandinavian name for the eagle (ARI, ARIN, ERN, ORN) in ARNES-by, the eagle’s town; EARN-ley, AR-ley, the eagle’s meadow; EARS-dale, the eagle’s vale; ARN-old, the eagle’s wood; ARN-heim, the eagle’s home; ARNS-berg, the eagle’s hill; ARNS-walde, ARENS-walde, the eagle’s wood or forest; ARN-stadt, the eagle’s town; ARENS-burg, the eagle’s city; AREN-berg-thal, the eagle’s mountain valley; ARR-öe, the eagle’s isle; AR-schot, the eagle’s wood or field; AREND-see, the eagle’s lake. The DAW, in DAW-ley, DEW-bury, DEW-sall. The OWL, in UL-combe, ULLEN-hall, OWLS-bury, the owl’s city; OWL-ton, the owl’s town; EULEN-gebirge, the owl’s mountains; UL-ey, UGL-ey, the owl’s river island. The CROW (CRAWE, Anglo-Saxon; KRAKA, Scandinavian) in CRACKEN-dale, CROUGH-ton, CREAKE, CROW-hurst, the crow’s forest; CROW-land, the crow’s district; CROW-borough, the crow’s city; CRAW-ley, the crow’s meadow; CRAYKE, the crow’s region; CRAKE-hall, CRAKE-hill, the crow’s hill; CRACKEN-thorp, the crow’s village; KRA-winkel, the crow’s angle; KRE-feld, the crow’s field. The CRANE, in CRAN-brook, the crane’s brook; CRAN-field, the crane’s field; CRAN-ham, the crane’s home; CRAN-bourne, the crane’s stream; CRAN-ach, the crane’s dwelling by the stream; CRANEN-burg, the crane’s city. The Scandinavian TRANA, a crane, is perhaps found in TRAN-well, the crane’s spring; TRAN-mere, the crane’s lake. The SWAN, in SWAN-cot, the swan’s hut; SWAN-more, the swan’s moor; SCHWAN-den, the swan’s ravine; SCHWANE-beck, the swan’s rivulet. The DOVE (CULVER), in CULVER-hayes, the dove’s field. The WREN, in WREN-hurst, the wren’s thicket; WREN-thorpe, the wren’s village. The HEN (HAEN), in HEN-stead, HEN-baun, HEN-don, the hen’s hill; HEN-ley, the hen’s meadow; HINTON, the hen’s town. The GOOSE, in GAS-garth, the enclosure of the geese; GOS-forth, the ford of the geese; GAS-dale, the vale of the geese. The word FOWL, which occurs in numerous places, had originally a much wider meaning than at present. Any flying creature, was a bird; and in this sense we find it in FOULS-ham, FUL-ham, the bird’s home; FULL-wood, the bird’s wood; FOULN-ey, FUGL-oe, the bird’s island; VOGELS-berg, the bird’s hill. The names of Fish seem rather scarce; we find FISH-bourn, the stream, abounding in fish; FISHER-gate, fish street; FISHER-ton, fish town; FISH-guard, fish enclosure; FISH-toft, fish field; FISH-field, fish field; FISCH-back, fish rivulet; FISK-um-foss, the waterfall of the fish dwelling. The SALMON (LAX) occurs in LAX-ey, LAX-field, LAX-ay, salmon river; LAX-voe, salmon bay; LAKE-fiord, salmon firth. The TROUT (TRUHT) is found in TROUTS-dale, TROUT-beck, the trout rivulet. The EEL may be traced in AAL-borg, eel city; AAL-en, eel island; AAL-st, eel district; AAL-rust, eel torrent. The FROG and TOAD are perhaps the only reptiles we find in place-names. They evidently give names to FROG-hill, FROG-more, the frog’s moor; FROX-feld, the frog’s field; FROX-ton, the frog’s town; FRISKN-ey, the frog’s island; TAD-ley, TAD-low. The Scandinavian term for the reptile is PADDA, which occurs in PAD-gate, frog street; PADDON-Beck, frog stream; PADDY-gill, frog rivulet; &c. The insect WIGGA, WIEGA, a beetle, is perhaps found in WIG-more, the beetle’s moor; WIGGEN-holt, the beetle’s wood; WIG-sell, the beetle’s seat; WIG-ton, WIGS-ton, WIGGIN-ton, the beetle’s town; WIG-toft, the beetle’s field. In German, the name of the beetle is KAFER, cognate with the En-CHAFER, which occurs in KAFER-loh, the beetle’s meadow; KAFERN-burg, the beetle’s city. (C) THE NAMES OF TREES, PLANTS, &c. Trees performed no unimportant part in the division of land among the Teutonic nations; they were used as land marks and boundaries, and county courts were held under them. The word TREE occurs very often in the names of places, and is no doubt connected with some historical circumstance: e.g.— Oswes-TRY, Coven-TRY, Dodin-TREE, Web-TREE, Grey-TREE, Els-TREE, &c. The OAK (AC) is found in AC-ton, the oak town; ACK-worth, the oak farm; AUCK-land, the oak district; AIKE-Beck-Mouth, the mouth of the oak rivulet; OAK-leigh, OCK-ley, OAK-ley, WOK-ing, the oak meadow; AS-kew (AKE-skeugh), the oak knoll; AX-holme, the oak island; EX-fold, the oak enclosure; EX-twistle, the oak borders; OKE-hanger-mere, the oak meadow-lake; OAK-ham, the oak dwelling; OCK-brook, the oak brook; UCK-field, the oak plain; Bald-OCK, the bare oak; Mart-OCK, the market oak; EICH-horn, the oak height; EICHS-feld, the oak field; EICH-stadt, the oak town. The ASH (AESC) occurs in ASH-stead, ash dwelling; AS-cot, ash hut; ASH-don, ASHEN-don, ASH-down, ash hill; ASH-combe, ES-combe, ash valley; ESH-gill, ash rivulet; ASH-ling, ash heath; ASH-by, ASH-ton, ASTON, ash town; ASH-well, ash spring; ASH-borne, ash stream; AS-hurst, ash thicket; ASH-fold, ash enclosure. The Scandinavian form occurs in ASK-rigg, ash ridge; ASK-ern, ash dwelling; ASKER-sund, ash sound; ASK-han, ASK-heim, ash home. The German form is found in ESCHERS-leben, ASCHERS-leben, ash field or level; AS-perg, ash hill; ESCHEN-bach, ash stream; ESCH-wege, ash way; ESCH-weiler, ash dwelling; AS-sens, AS-sen, ash dwelling; ASSEN-heim, ash home. The ALDER is found in ALDER-bury, alder city; ALDER-ley, alder meadow; ALDER-minster, alder church; ALLER-dale, alder vale; ALLER-by, alder town; ALDERS-haugh, alder hill; ALDER-mas-ton, alder marsh town; ALDEN-ham, alder home; ALDER-shot, alder wood; ALLI-thwaite, alder path; ALLER-ton, OWLER-ton, ELLER-ton, alder town; ELLE-ray, alder corner; ELL-feld, alder field; ELL-bogen, alder bending; ELL-rich, alder district; ELL-wangen, alder meadow; ERL-ach, alder dwelling on the stream; ERL-angen, ERL-au, alder meadow. The BROOM gives name to BROM-ton, broom town; BROM-borough, broom city; BROM-ley, broom meadow; BROM-yard, broom enclosure; BROM-hurst, broom forest; BROMS-wold, broom wood; BROM-berg, broom hill; BRAM-field, broom field; BRAM-with, broom wood; BRAM-shot, broom wood; BRAM-ber, broom pasture; BRAM-cote, broom hut. The BEECH may be traced in BOCK-am, beech home; BUCH-au, beech meadow; BUCH-holz, beech wood; BUCH-horn, beech corner; BUCHS-weiler, beech dwelling. The BIRCH gives name to BARK-by; BARK-ham; BARK-brough; BARK-ey; BIRK-stall; BERKE-ley, birch meadow; BIRKEN-shaw, birch field; BERK-hamp-stead, birch homestead; BARK-by, birch town; BIRKEN-field, birch field; BJORK-ö, birch island; BIRK-thwaite, birch path. The APPLE is found in APPLE-ton, APPLE-by, apple town; APPULDUR-combe, APPULDRE-combe, apple valley; APPLE-shaw, apple field or wood; APPLE-dore, APPLE-thwaite, apple path. The HAZEL occurs in HAZEL-ton; HAZE-leigh; HAZEL-badge; HASLE-mere; HAZLE-wood, hazel wood; HASEL-bury, hazel city; HASLE-don, hazel hill; HASLE-wall, hazel bank; HAYSEL-dean, hazel hollow; HAZLE-shaw, hazel wood; HASSEL-feld, hazel field. The LIME-tree (LINDE) occurs in LIND-field, lime field; LIND-ridge, lime ridge; LIND-hurst, lime forest; LIND-au, the lime meadow; LINDEN-fels, lime hills; LINDES-berg, lime hill; Hohen-LINDEN, the high lime tree. The MAPLE-tree is found in MAPPER-ley; MAPLE-stead; MAPPER-ton, maple town; MAPPOW-der, maple dwelling; MAPLE-hurst, maple forest; MAPUL-beck, maple rivulet. The PINE occurs in PINE-low; PIN-hoe, pine hill; PINE-hurst, pine thicket; &c. The THORN gives name to THORN-waste, thorn level; THORN-bury, thorn city; THORN-ey, thorn island; THORN-ham, thorn home; THORN-ton, thorn city; Pightles-THORNE, the enclosure by the thorn; Moster-TON (Mortes-TORNE), slaughter thorn. The German form, DORN, occurs in DORN-burg, the thorn city; DORN-holz-hausen, thorn wood-dwelling; DORN-han, thorn field; DORN-stetten, thorn town. The WILLOW (WELIG) may be traced in WILLOUGH-by, WILLOUGH-ton, willow town; WITHE-ridge, willow ridge; WITH-ern, willow dwelling; WITHY-sike, willow brook; WITHY-ham, willow home; WEID-a, willow water dwelling; WEID-en, willow district; WEIDEN-au, willow meadow. SAUCH, SOUGH, SAY, a willow, is the root of Nick-SOUGH, SAW-ley, SAIGH-ton, and SAUG-hall. The YEW appears in U-ford, UF-ton, U-ton, IW-erne, IW-ade, EW-hurst, yew forest; EW-den, yew hollow; EWAN-rigg, yew ridge; IW-ern, yew dwelling; The VIEWS, the yews; EIBEN-stock, yew enclosure. The BRIER occurs in BRIER-den, BRIAR-cliff, BRIER-ley, briar meadow; BRE-wood, briar wood. The FERN gives name to FURN-ham, FARN-ham, fern home; FERN-ton, fern town; FARNS-ley, fern meadow; FARN-borough, fern city. The FURZE (FYRS), WHIN, Scandinavian, occurs in WHIN-berg, WHIN-fell, WHIN-brig-dale; WHINN-ey-nab, FURZ-leigh, the furzy meadow; FURZ-brook, the furzy brook; FURZ-moor-gate, the furzy moor-street. FLAX (LIN) appears in LIN-gards, flax enclosure; LIN-thwaite, flax path; LIN-ton, flax town; LIN-dale, flax vale. GRASS (GAERS, and SPROT) is found in YEARS-ley, GRAT-ton, GRETN-a, SPROT-ton, SPRAT-ton, SPROUGH-ton, SPROS-ton, GRAS-mere, grass lake; GAR-grave, grass grove; GRAS-garth, grass enclosure; GARS-ton, grass field; GAR-stang, grass pool; GARS-dale, grass vale; GRAS-croft, grass field; GRASS-by, grass town; GRAS-brook, grass brook; GARS-by, the enclosed grass town. CRESS (NASTURTIUM) occurs in CRESS-well, nasturtium spring; CREAS-y, nasturtium dwelling by the stream; CRESS-ham, nasturtium home; CRESS-low, nasturtium hill. MOSS gives name to MOSE-ley, MOSS-ley, moss meadow; MOS-ton, moss town; MUS-borough, moss city; Gil-MOSS, the rivulet of the moss; MOSS-soe, moss lake; MOSEN-berg, moss hill; MOS-bach, moss stream. SEDGE appears in SEDGE-moor;, SEDGE-ly, sedge meadow; SEDG-barrow, sedge wood. The RUSH is an element in RUSH-ley, rush meadow; RUSH-hulme, rush island; RUSH-mere, rush marsh; RIS-borough, rush city; RUS-combe, rush valley; RUS-warp, rush mound; RUSH-worth, rush farm; RUS-land, RUSH-land, rush district. The NETTLE in NETTLE-combe, NETTLE-den, NETTLE-stead, and NETTLE-ton. The REED gives name to REED-ham, reed home; RID-ley, reed meadow; ROR-bach, reed stream; &c. BARLEY (BIGG) may be traced in BIG-by, barley town; BYG-land, barley district. BEANS appear in BIN-stead, bean dwelling; BEEN-ham, bean home; BINE-gar, bean enclosure; BIN-don, bean hill; BIN-field, bean field. The OAT occurs in OAD-by, OT-ley, and OAT-land. The Scandinavian HAVER (oats) gives names to HAVER-ham, HAVER-ford, and HAVER-thwaite. The SLOW is easily seen in SLOW-burn and SLOW-combe. HAW-ley and HAW-don derive their name from the haw; APSE, ASP-ley, and ASP-don from the asp (aps). WHEAT appears in WHIT-field, WHEAT-ley, WHEAT-hamp-stead, WHEAT-on, WHATE-ly, and WHIT- barrow. SHROP-ham, SHROP-shire, SCROP-ton, SCROP-ley-hill, SCRAP-loft, and SCROBB are derived from SCRYBE, a shrub; as well as SCREVE-by, SCROO-by, and SCRAF-ton. WORT-ley, WORT-well, WOR-stead, WORS-borough, WORS-ley, WROOT, WURZ-burg, WURZ-ach, WURZ- em, &c., contain the root WYRT, WORT, an herb. (D) NAMES OF MINERALS. ERZ (German), Ore, occurs in ERZ-gebirge, ore mountains; ERZ-en, ore district. CLAY in CLAY-pole, CLAY-worth, CLAY-gate, clay street; CLAY-don, clay hill; CLAI-borne, clay stream. CISEL (gravel) CHISEL-hampton, CHISEL-don, CHESIL-borne, CHISEL-hurst, gravel forest; CHISEL-bury, gravel city; CHESIL-bank, gravel bank. CHALK gives name to CHALK-grove, CHAL-ford, CHILT-ern, KALK-stein, and CALKE. GRIES (German), gravel, is found in GRIES-bach, gravel stream; GRIES-heim, gravel home; GRIES-kirch, gravel church; &c. MARL occurs in MAR-low, MARL-borough, and MARLS-ton. SALT appears in SALTER-ton, SALT-ash, SALTN-ey, SAL-combe, SALT-coats; SALZ-brunn, SALZ-burg, SALZ-dahl-um, SALZ-wedel, &c. EISEN (German), iron, is found in EISEN-ach, EISEN-berg, EIS-eld, EIS-leben, EIS-grub, EISEN-burg, &c. SAND gives name to SAND-wich, SAND-hurst, SANDER-croft, &c. STONE (STAN) appears in STONE-leigh, STAN-ley, STAN-ton, STAINES, STAN-bury, STAIN-land, STAIN- drop, STAN-hope; STEEN-bergen, STEEN-wyk, STEIN, STEIN-ach, STEIN-au, STEIN-bach, STEIN-borth, STEIN- holm, STEIN-horst, STEIN-weiss, &c. (E) ADJECTIVES. AL, ALT, ALD, AU (old)—ALD-borough, AL-thorpe, AL-bourne, AL-ton, AL-ford, AL-cester; ALTEN- burg, ALTEN-markt, ALTEN-dorn, ALTEN-feld, AL-torf, OLDE-bach, OLDE-boorn, OLDEN-dorf, OLDEN-burg, AU-burn, and AU-thorpe. BRAD (broad)—BRAD-well, BRAD-stock, BRAD-ford; BREIT-horn, BREITEN-bach, &c. CHEIL, COL, CALD (cold)—COL-burn, COAL-brook, COLD-stream, COLD-side, CHELS-field, COWD-ham, CHILD-hay, CHILT-thorn, CHIL-worthy, CALD-well; CALDE-cote, CAL-bourne, CAUDE-bec (CALDE-bec), COLDEN-weide, COLDEN-hoff, KALT-brun, KALTEN-nord-heim, and KALTEN-sund-heim. DEOP (deep)—DEPT-ford, DEEP-dale, DIEPEN-beck, DIEPEN-heim, DIEPEN-au, &c. KINE, KING (royal, king)—KINE-ton, KINNER-ton, KINGS-bury, KINGER-by. OST, OOST, OSTEN (east)—EAST-bourne, EAS-ton; OST-ende, OSTER-ach, OSTER-end, OSTER-holz, OSTE-rode, OSTER-sunde, OST-hem, OST-heim, OST-wolde, OOST-burg, OOSTER-einde, OOSTER-wyk, OOSTER-wolde, OOST-kerke, &c. HOL (hollow)—HOL-beach, HOL-land, HOL-born, HOL-bek, HOLLEN-beek, &c. LANG (long)—LANG-baurgh, LANG-don, LANGEN-hoe. LILLE (little)—LILLES-don, LILLES-hall. MICKLE, MUCH (large)—MICKLE-fell, MICKLE-field, MUCH-wen-lock. NOR, NORD (north)—NOR-folk, NOR-ham, NOR-mandy, NOR-mark, NOR-den, NORD-heim, NORR-telge, NORR-land, NORR-koping, NORD-horn, NOORD-welle, NOORDER-wyk, NORDEN-ey, &c. NEU, NIEU (new)—NEU-berg, NEU-haus, NEU-land, NEU-stadt, NIEU-wold, NIEUW-kerk, NIEU-berg, NY- stad, NY-kerk, &c.; NEW-lands, NEW-ark, NEW-bury, NEW-ton, &c. NIEDER, NETHER (downward or further)—NETHER-bury, NETHER-compton, NETHER-lands, NIEDER- bronn, NIEDER-rad, NIEDERN-hall, NIEDER-wald, NIDER-dorf, &c. SUD, SUT (south)—SUR-rey, SUF-folk, SUT-ton, SUS-sex, SOUTH-leigh, SOUT-ham, SOUTH-end, SUT- torp, SUD-bury, SUDER-oe, SUNDER-land, Kalten-SUND-heim, SUND-gau, SODER-fors, SODER-hamn, SODER- telge, SORER-Koping, &c. SELL (happy, fortunate)—SEL-by, SEL-kirk, SELL-hurst, &c.; SELIGEN-stadt, SELIGEN-thal, &c. UP, UPPER (higher)—UP-ton, UP-hay, UP-lyme, UP-sala, &c. UNDER (lower) UNDER-barrow, UNDER-cliffe. WEST, WESTER, VESTER (west)—WEST-bury, WESTER-borg, WESTER-by, WESTER-holt, WESTER-land, WESTER-loo, WEST-heim, WEST-land, WEST-rup, WESTR-um, VEST-irg, VESTER-hoe, &c. DIVISION II. GENERAL ELEMENT. (A) WORDS SIGNIFYING WATER, RIVER, &c. EA.—This Anglo-Saxon word signifies (1) water in general, and (2) any running body of water, river, &c.—It occurs in the names of rivers, in the names of places near rivers, and in the names of marshes formed by rivers. The rivers Medway and Stour were anciently written Meduw-EA, and Stur-EA. In the East Anglian counties the term is still preserved, for we meet with Popham’s EA, St. John’s EA, Hammond EAU, &c. EYE, YEO, and AYE, are slightly altered forms of the same root, and EA is another name for the river Leven. E-hen, fowl river; EA-mont (EA-mot), water-meeting. The following places near rivers contain some form of the Anglo-Saxon root, EA:— Chels-EA, the cold river-marsh; Batters-EA, St. Peter’s river-marsh; It formerly belonged, together with Peter’s-ham, to St. Peter’s Abbey, Cherts-EY. EA-ton, E-ton, the town of the river; E-dale, the river vale; E-rith, water channel; EA-land, YEA-land, river district; EG-ham, the dwelling on the stream. The plural form, EAS, water-course, occurs in EAS-dale, EAS-writh, and EAS-tyn. In the Gothic we meet with the following cognate forms:—AHA, AUE, AWE, OWE, AHVA, and ACH, e.g., Fuld-a, Fuld-AHA; Goth-a, Goth-AHA; Lahn, Lon-AHA; Sieg, Seg-AHA. We find A, a contraction of AHA, in Schwein-A, Asch-A, Born-A, Buch-A, Baren-wald-A, Konigs-werth- A, Hoyers-werd-A, Berk-A, Vach-A, Goth-A, &c. In Burgundy, we find the terminations AY, OY, and Y, used to designate habitations established along running water, e.g.—Cambr-AY, Tourn-AY, Dou-AY, Quesn-OY, Chaum-Y, &c. The ending OW, in Beesk-OW, Godan-OWA, and Buch-OW, is another form of the same root. The form ACH occurs in Stadt-stein-ACH, Dorn-ACH, AACH-en, Baden-ACH, Gold-ACH, Nieder-ACH, Stein-ACH, the stony-dwelling on the stream; Wurz-ACH, the herb dwelling on the stream; Wolf-ACH, the wolf’s dwelling on the stream; Rod-ACH, the cleared spot or path on the stream. The plural form, AR, ER, signifying the confluence of waters, occurs in OHRE, ER-furt, OHR-druf, and Neck-AR. The Scandinavian forms for water, are, A, AA, and AAE. In England we find Cald-A, Routh-A, Rath-A, AY-am, AY-cliffe, &c. AA occurs as the name of several rivers in Hanover, France, Brabant, Groningen, and Switzerland. AA is found in Nips-AAE, Schol-AAE, Sus-AAE, Skar-A, Grenn-A, Wad-sten-A, Sal-A, Nor-A, Hag-A, Foss-AA, AA-kirke, A-bo, the dwelling by the water;