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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: The Etymology of Local Names With a short introduction to the relationship of languages. Teutonic names. Author: R. Morris Release Date: August 8, 2018 [EBook #57658] Language: English *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES *** Produced by Steven Gibbs and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net THE ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. WITH A SHORT INTRODUCTION TO THE RELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGES. TEUTONIC NAMES. BY R. MORRIS, FORMERLY STUDENT OF BATTERSEA TRAINING COLLEGE. Names have all some meaning when first imposed; and when a place is named for the first time, by any people, they apply to it some term—in early times generally descriptive of its natural peculiarities, or something else, on account of which it is remarkable, from their own language. When we find therefore, that the old names of natural objects and localities in a country belong, for the most part, to a particular language, we may conclude with certainty that a people speaking that language formerly occupied the country. Of this the names they have so impressed are as sure a proof as if they had left a distinct record of their existence in words engraven on the rocks. Such old names of places often long outlive both the people that bestowed them, and nearly all the material monuments of their occupancy. The language, as a vehicle of oral communication, may gradually be forgotten and be heard no more where it was once in universal use, and the old topographical nomenclature may still remain unchanged.— Pictorial History of England. LONDON: JUDD & GLASS, NEW BRIDGE STREET, BLACKFRIARS, E.C. LONDON: PRINTED BY JUDD & GLASS, NEW BRIDGE STREET, BLACKFRIARS, E.C. CONTENTS. PAGE I NTRODUCTION 5 W ORKS C ONSULTED 10 T HE V ALUE OF L OCAL N AMES 11 T HE C OMPOSITION OF L OCAL N AMES 13 DIVISION I.—DESCRIPTIVE ELEMENT. ( A ) N AMES OF T RIBES , I NDIVIDUALS , F AMILIES , AND G ODS 14 ( a ) T RIBES 14 ( b ) F AMILIES 15 ( c ) I NDIVIDUALS 17 ( d ) G ODS 18 ( B ) N AMES OF A NIMALS 19 ( C ) N AMES OF T REES , P LANTS , & C 27 ( D ) N AMES OF M INERALS 32 ( E ) N AMES OF Q UALITIES 33 DIVISION II.—GENERAL ELEMENT. ( A ) N AMES OF R IVERS , L AKES , & C 35 ( B ) N AMES OF M OUNTAINS , H ILLS , & C 47 ( C ) N AMES OF V ALLEYS , P LAINS , W OODS , & C 53 ( D ) N AMES OF H ABITATIONS 59 INTRODUCTION. THE RELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGES. “Languages,” says the author of “The Cosmos,” “compared with each other, and considered as objects of the natural history of the human mind, being divided into families according to the analogy of their internal structure, have become a rich source of historical knowledge. Products of the mental powers, they lead us back, by the fundamental characters of their organisation, to an obscure and otherwise unknown distance. The comparative study of languages shows how races, or nations, now separated by wide regions, are related to each other, and have proceeded from a common seat; it discloses the directions and paths of ancient migrations; in tracing out epochs of development, it recognises in the more or less altered characters of the language, in the permanency of certain forms, or the already advanced departure from them, which portion of the race has preserved a language nearest to that of their former common dwelling-place.” The coincidences between the languages of the globe have been made the subject of careful study by eminent scholars, who have established Comparative Philology upon the footing of a new science. It has been found that mere verbal comparisons are utterly worthless in determining either the formation of groups of languages or their relations to one another. The dictionary of a nation may be borrowed, for words are soon lost and easily replaced; but the grammar of a language—that is to say, its syntax, conjugations, and declensions, the formation of new words from certain primitive forms, and those relational words which perform a similar function, as pronouns, numerals, and particles—is as constant and invariable as the nation itself. Grammatical analysis and comparison is therefore the only true method for the classification of languages according to their radical affinity; mere superficial resemblances of words prove nothing, nor have they any value unless tested and confirmed by arguments drawn from grammatical structure. On the evidence afforded by a searching grammatical analysis, the languages of the greater part of Europe and Asia have been divided into three great families, whose grammatical forms are perfectly clear and distinct. They have been named I NDO -E UROPEAN or A RIAN , S EMITIC , and T URANIAN (A) T HE I NDO -E UROPEAN or A RIAN family of languages extends from the mouth of the Ganges to the British Isles and the Northern extremity of Scandinavia. The term Arian is derived from A RYA , the original name of this family. It signifies honourable , or of a good family . In Asia we find two great branches of this family: I. The Indian. This branch includes the Sanskrit (the language of the Vedas, the first literary monument of the Arian world), with its living representatives, the Hindustani, Mahratti, Bengali, Guzerati, Singhalese, &c.; the Prakrit and Pali idioms; the Siah-Posh (Kafir dialect), and the language of the Gipsies. II. The Iranian or Persian . To this branch belong the Zend or Old Persian (the language of the Zendavesta), with its representatives; the language of the Achaemenians, written in the Cuneiform character; the speech of Huzvaresh or Pehlevi; the Pazend or Parsi; and the modern Persian. The following dialects, though not very important in a philological view, belong to this class:—the Afghan, Bokhara, Kurdian, Armenian, and Ossetian. In Europe there are no less than six branches of the Arian family: I. The Celtic. Though the Celts seem to have been the first inhabitants of Europe, very few of their dialects are now spoken, having been superseded by the Teutonic idioms. Modern Celtic dialects are divided into two classes; ( a ) the Gallic or Ancient British, including the Welsh (Cymric), Cornish, and Armorican of Brittany; ( b ) the Galic, Gadhelic, or Erse, including the Irish (Fenic), the Highland Scottish (Gaelic), and Manx, the dialect of the Isle of Man. II. The Teutonic. This branch is divided into three dialects; ( a ) the High German, including the Old High German, the Middle High German, and the Modern High German; ( b ) the Low German, including the Gothic, the Anglo-Saxon and English, the Old Saxon and Platt-Deutsch, the Frisic, the Dutch and Flemish; ( c ) the Scandinavian, including the Old Norsk, the Icelandic, the Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish. III. The Italic. To this class belong the Oscan, Umbrian, and Latin dialects; the Old Provençal, and the Romance languages (Provençal and French, Italian and Wallachian, Spanish and Portuguese) formed during the decay of the Latin. IV The Hellenic. This branch includes the Greek and its dialects, the Aeolic, Ionic, Doric, and Attic. V The Albanian ; including the Geghian and the Toskian dialects spoken in Illyria and Epirus. VI. The Slavonic or Windic branch is divided into two dialects; ( a ) the Lettic, including the Lithuanian, Old Prussian, and Lettish; ( b ) the Slavonic Proper, which is again divided into two branches, termed the Eastern and Western. The Eastern dialect includes the Russian (Great, Little, and White Russian), the Servian, Kroatian, and Slovenian; and the Bulgarian, or in its oldest form, the Ecclesiastical Slavonic. The Western dialect includes the Polish, the Bohemian, the Polabian, and the Lusatian. (B) T HE S EMITIC Family (so called from Shem, one of the sons of Noah) is not so widely extended as the Arian family, but the nations composing it were the first to appear upon the theatre of history. It comprises the following branches:— I. The Arabic , which includes the Ethiopian or Abissinian and the Maltese. II. The Chaldean , which includes the Old Babylonian, the Chaldee of Babylon and Mesopotamia, the Chaldee of Daniel and of the Targums, and the Syrian (Aramaic). III. The Hebrew , the language of Canaan, which includes the Phœnician and Carthaginian. IV The Berber dialects , which are spoken in Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli, and Fez. The Haussa and Galla dialects are now considered as Semitic idioms. (C) T HE T URANIAN family of languages is distinguished from the Arian and Semitic in the total absence of inflection. To express the variations for case, mood, &c., Turanian words undergo no inflection; but an additional word is glued , as it were to the noun, verb, &c., as the case may be, in order to express the relations of case, mood, &c. Hence these have been termed agglutinizing languages. To connect the idea of plurality with the English word boy , we merely inflect it, and obtain the word boys ; but upon the principle of agglutination, a syllable indicative of plurality must be affixed, e.g. , singular, boy ; plural, boy-crowd . Thus the roots are never obscured, while they admit of a vocal harmony which is altogether peculiar to this family of languages; e.g. , (Turkish) aghâ , a lord, becomes in the plural, agha-lar ; er , a man becomes in the plural, er-ler , and not er-lar , as in the former case. The vowels of the agglutinized syllables, it is easily seen, must harmonize with those of the roots; e.g. , (Magyar) kert , a garden, makes kert-esz-nek to the gardener, and not kert-asz-nak There are two great divisions of this family:— I. The Northern or Ural-Altaic division includes ( a ) the Tungusian dialects, spoken in Upper and Lower Tunguska, on the coast of Okhotsk, and by the Mantchoos or Mandshus (in China); ( b ) the Mongolian dialects, spoken in the North and South of Gobi, in Tibet and Tangut, in the plains on each side of the V olga (by the Olöts or Kalmuks) and by the Buriäts of Lake Baikal; ( c ) the Turkish dialects, spoken in Derbend, Krimea, Antolia, and Rumelia; (the Yakuts, the Tatars or Turks of Siberia, the Kirghis, the Bashkirs, the Kumians, the Nogais, and the Karatschais, the Usbegs, Uigurs, and Turkomans, speak Turkish dialects); ( d ) the Finnish dialects, spoken by the Hungarians, Lapps, Finns, Esths, V oguls, Permians, &c.; ( e ) the dialects of the Samoiedes and Ostiakes. II. The Southern division comprises the Tamul, the Bhotiya, and the Malay. The Caucasian dialects are degenerated branches of the Turanian family; they include the idioms of the Georgians or Grusians, the Suans, the Lazes, the Lesghi, the Mitsgeghi, and the Kerkessians and Abasians. WORKS CONSULTED. “Local Nomenclature of the Anglo-Saxons,” by H. Leo. “Codex Diplomaticus Ævi Saxonici,” edited by Professor Kemble. “The Germania of Tacitus,” edited by Dr. Latham. Bosworth’s “Anglo-Saxon Dictionary.” Meidinger’s “Comparative Dictionary of the Gothic Tongues.” Jamieson’s “Scottish Dictionary.” “The Saxons in England,” by Professor Kemble. Worsaae’s “Danes and Norwegians in England.” “The Northmen in Cumberland and Westmoreland,” by R. Ferguson. Wright’s “Provincial Dictionary.” THE ETYMOLOGY OF LOCAL NAMES. Names of places in a great measure belong to the oldest and most primitive evidences of language, and they are of the highest importance in the history of nations and dialects.— H. Leo. It cannot be doubted that local names , and those devoted to distinguish the natural features of a country, possess an inherent vitality which even the urgency of conquest is unable to remove.— Kemble. The geography and history of a nation must be sought in the language of the name-givers of that country, or in a translation of the language of the name-givers of that country.— Pococke. Geographical nomenclature is a branch of geography generally left to chance or caprice; and it will not be easy to find any department so left, which has been more abused. Wherever names exist, and where these names may have existed for a number of ages, it appears something like sacrilege to disturb or change them; such names, besides the sacredness of antiquity, are often significant, and contain in themselves information as to the migrations of the human race, and the former connexion which existed between tribes now far separated. Names are seldom vulgar or ridiculous, and they furnish a copious fund of distributive terms, to obviate the confusion which arises to geographical nomenclature in the repetition for the hundredth time of rivers—Thames, Trent, and Tyne, &c.; and it fortunately happens that in no country, however barbarous or thinly peopled, are the great features of nature, as rivers and mountains, without names; and the name of a river or mountain may be appropriately applied also to the district in which it occurs.— Capt. Vetch. “He who calls departed ages again into being,” says Niebuhr, “enjoys a bliss like that of creating.” The study of words does this; it recalls the past with all its associations, so that for a time it becomes a part of the present. It cannot be otherwise, for every word rests upon some fact ; so that when we attempt to account for the meaning of a word, we only go back to the fact upon which it rests. There is one class of words which is very suggestive—we mean those names which have been attached for ages to places familiar to us from the days of our childhood, from our pleasure excursions, or from our course of reading. The thoughtful mind cannot remain long contented with names that convey no meaning with them; there is always the desire to retain them in the memory by some principle of association, and this leads to an inquiry concerning their origin and history, or when and why they were imposed. The study of place- names is one, then, of great interest to the historian and to the teacher. The signification of a single name throws much light upon the history of nations and their migrations. In point of fact, there is often more dependence to be placed upon words than upon history; for, says Halberstma, it pleases not the muse of history to speak but late, and then in a very confused manner: yet she often deceives; and before she comes to maturity she seldom distinctly tells us the truth. Language never deceives, but speaks more distinctly, though removed to a higher antiquity. The object of the following pages is to supply teachers with the chief root or key -words which are necessary for the explanation of local names in England, and such kindred forms as are to be met with in those countries occupied by nations belonging to the same family, and usually termed Teutonic. It is a well-known fact that many of the names of places in England are also common to Germany. Verstegan, in his scarce work, printed in 1605, very plainly alludes to it. “Thus the Saxons,” he says, “who at first came unto the aid of the Britons, became about two hundred years after, to be the possessors and sharers of the best part of the Isle of Britain among themselves. And, as their language was altogether different from that of the Britons, so left they very few cities, towns, villages, passages, rivers, woods, fields, hills, or dales that they gave not new names unto, such as in their own language were intelligible, and either given by reason of the situation or nature of the place, or after some place in some sort like unto it in Germany, from whence they came—as the name of Oxford or Oxenford, on the river Thames, after the town of the same name in Germany, situated on the Oder; our Hereford, near unto Wales, after Hervford, in Westphalia. And so, in like manner, may be said of Stafford, Swinford, Bradford, Norden, Newark, Bentham, Oxenbridge, Buchurst, Scorethorpe, Holt, Mansfield, Swinefield, Daventry, Hampstead, Radcliff, Rosendale, and a great number of places in our country, that yet retain the names of places in Germany and the Netherlands (albeit the ancient orthography may in some of them be a little varied), as here to be reckoned up would be tedious.” We have chosen English names as the basis of comparison because they are more familiar, and, indeed, of more importance than any others. Emerson, speaking of them, says—“The names are excellent; an atmosphere of legendary melody spreads over the land. Older than all epics and histories, which clothe a nation, this under-shirt sits close to the body. What history, too, and what stores of primitive and savage observation, it unfolds!” The names of places in England, and among the Teutonic tribes generally, are composed of two parts. The first member is a descriptive word referring to some particular historical circumstance, to personages, to animals, vegetables, or minerals; or it may be merely an adjective. The second member designates, by some general and appropriate term, either the natural features of the country, settlement, or neighbourhood to be described—as hill, mountain, river, &c.—or some artificial constructions, as town, borough, field, &c. The first member is generally prefixed to distinguish places having similar positions — e.g. , Staple-ford, Notting-ham, New-ark, &c. Sometimes the names of places are represented by a single word— e.g. , Slough, Ford, Holt, Down, Berg, Furt, &c. All places do not admit of explanation. Those ending with Ing or having after it Ham or Ton, are derived from the names of tribes, families, or individuals. The subject is naturally divided into— I.— The Descriptive Element. ( a ) Names of Personages (Historical or Mythical). ( b ) Animals. ( c ) Vegetables. ( d ) Minerals. ( e ) Adjectives. II.— The General Element. ( a ) Water, River, Brook, &c. ( b ) Mountain, Hill, &c. ( c ) Valley, Plain, &c. ( d ) Habitations. DIVISION I. DESCRIPTIVE ELEMENT. ( A ) NAMES OF TRIBES, FAMILIES, INDIVIDUALS, AND GODS. ( a ) Tribes. (1) G ERMAN .—This name was not applied to the people of Germany by themselves, but they received it from the Celts on account of their terrible war cry . The root of the word is the Celtic verb Gairmean , “to cry out.” (2) D UTCH ( Deutsch ).—This term, which is now applied to the people of Holland, is literally an adjective signifying “popular” (Diut-isc). It was originally applied to the language of the Teutonic people in order to distinguish it from the Latin. The word T EUTONES , the Latin form of the native word Theotisci, Teutisci , &c., is derived from the Gothic root Diut , a “people or nation.” It occurs in the modern name T EUT -o-berger. The following tribes have left their names as an element of local nomenclature:— (3) A NGRIV ARI , in A NGERN , E NGERN , A NGER -munde. (4) A NGLES , in A NGLES -ey, E NG -land, A NGELN , H UNGER -ford (A NGLES -ford). (5) A RA VISCI in the river R AAB , anciently A RABO (6) B URGUNDIANS , in B URGUNDY (7) C HERUSCI ( Crherstini ) in the H ARTZ mountains, H ARTZ -burg, and H ERZ -burg. The root seems to be the Gothic Har , Haruc , “a temple.” In the poem of Beo-Wulf it occurs as the name of the great palatial hall of Hrothgar. (8) C AUCI , in C UX -haven. (9) C ATTI , in H ESSE (10) E UDOSES , in E YD -er, E UD -ing, and D OSSE (11) F RISIANS , in F RIES -land, F RIS -by, and F RIS -thorpe. (12) G OTHS , in G OTH -land, G OTHEN -burg, G OTH -a. (13) L ANGOBARDI , in L OMBARDY , B ARDEN -gan, B ARD -wick. (14) M ONA VI ( Menapi ), in M AN , M ONA , and M ENAI straits. (15) S AXONS , in Es- SEX (East Saxons), Sus- SEX (South Saxons), Middle- SEX (Middle Saxons), H OLSTEIN — i.e. , Holt S ASSEN , or Olt S ASSEN , “Old Settlers.” The inhabitants of Holstein were called H OLSATI or Holzati, from the Platt-Deutsch Sitten , Satten “to sit.” (16) S UIONES , S UEVI , in S WEDEN , S UABIA , O DER , at one time called S UEVUS , and the V IADRUS , whose mouth is still called S WINE -mund. (17) S UARDONES , in S CHWART -au. (18) T HURINGI , in T HURINGIAN -wald. (19) R UGII , in the island of R UGEN (20) L EMOVII , in the river L EBA (21) D ULGIBINI , in the river D ULMEN (22) S ITONES , in S IGTUN , S ITUN ( b ) Families. The names of families and individuals enter largely into the composition of local names. They may be easily discovered by the particle ING before H AM , T ON , H ALL , &c. Thus B IRMING -ham was originally the home of the B EORMINGAS , the descendants of Beorm; B ALDING -ham of the B AEDLINGAS ; B UCKING -ham of the B UCINGAS ; L ITTLING -ton was originally the enclosed residence of the L YTHINGAS ; E LVING -ton of the E LFINGAS , and K ILLING -hall the fortified residence of the C YLINGAS Professors Leo and Kemble have thrown much light on this subject; the latter writer has furnished us with a valuable list of these family names in his Saxons in England The following extract from the pen of Mr. Wright will be of some service to the students of names:— The family or clan did not always take its name from the chief who obtained the allotment of land; it was often but a branch of a much older family in the land from which the settlement came. Hence we find patronymics in distant parts of England, which would seem to indicate that different members of the same original family had joined in various separate expeditions to Britain; and it is still more curious that this identity of name is found in districts peopled severally by the different races, Angles, Saxons, or Jutes. This admits of two explanations; it shows the close relationship between the three races themselves, and it proves, probably, that when a great chieftain of one race, an Angle, for instance, planned an expedition to Britain, subordinate leaders from the other Saxons, Jutes, or others, were ready to enlist among his followers. Thus we find the B ILLINGAS at B ILLING -ham in Durham, at B ILLING -ley in Yorkshire, at B ILLING -hay in Lincolnshire, at B ILLING -ton in the counties of Bedford, Stafford, and Lancaster, as well as at other places, all within the district occupied by the Angles. We find a settlement of the same family at B ILLING -hurst, in Sussex, and some of them appear to have established themselves in the outskirts of London, and to have given name to B ILLINGS -gate. (There was a family of B ILLUNG on the Continent; and Hermann Billung was invested with the Duchy of Saxony by Otto I. In 1106 the male line of this house became extinct on the death of the last Billung, Duke Magnus, who left two daughters, Eilike and Wulfhild; Wulfhild was married to Henry of Bavaria, surnamed the Black, a descendant of the Guelph family.) The B OSINGAS are found at B OSING -ham in Kent, and again at the two B OSSINGTONS in Hampshire and Somerset. The S CEARINGAS are found at S HARRING -ton, S HERING -ford, and S HARRING -ton in Norfolk, S HEERING in Essex, at S CARRING -ton in Nottinghamshire, and at S HEERING -ton in Buckingham and Wiltshire. We have the H ANINGAS at three places named H ANNING - ton in Northamptonshire, Herefordshire, and Wiltshire, and also probably at H ANNING -field in Essex. When we examine further we find in these patronymics, names which belong to the great families whose history is mixed up in the earliest Teutonic mythology. The W AELSINGS , who are found at W ALSING -ham in Norfolk, at W OLSING -ham in Durham, and at W OOLSING -ton in Northumberland, appear to have been offsets of the great family of the V OLSUNGAR of the Edda, and the V OLSUNGEN of the old German romances. The H ARLINGS (Herelingas), who are found at three places named H ARLING -ton in Middlesex, Bedfordshire, and Yorkshire, as well as at H ARLING in Norfolk, are also connected with the ancient Teutonic mythology, and their name is found at H ARLINGEN in Friesland. The S WAEFAS , a tribe who was known to have dwelt on the borders of the Angles on the Continent, appear to have given their name to S WAFF -ham in Norfolk. Mr. Kemble, quoting other well known names from the mythic and half mythic history of the continental Teutons, points out as further instances, that the B RENTINGS of the northern romance are found in England at B RENTING -ley in Leicestershire, and at B RANTING -ham in Yorkshire. The S CYLDINGS and S CYLFINGS , celebrated northern races, give their name to S KELDING , and to two places named S KILLING -ton in Northumberland and Dorsetshire. The A RDINGS , who are found at A RDING -ton in Berkshire, and at A RDING -ley in Sussex, are, he says, the A ZDINGI , the royal race of the Visigoths and Vandals; and the B ANINGS of the Continent, over whom, when the curious Anglo-Saxon fragment called the Traveller’s Song was written, a Prince named Becca ruled, are recognised in B ANNING -ham in Norfolk. The H ELSINGS gave name to H ELSING -ton in Westmoreland, and to H ELSING -land in Sweden; and we find the name of the B LECINGAS as well in B LECKINGEN in Sweden as in B LETCHING -ton in Oxfordshire and B LETCHING -ley in Surrey. In the G YTINGAS found at G UYTING in Gloucestershire, we perhaps trace the J UTUNGI of Germany; and another Alamannic tribe, the S CUDINGI , are supposed to be traced in the S CYTINGS , who gave their name to S HUTTING -ton in Warwickshire.— ( The Celt, the Roman, and the Saxon. ) ( c ) Individuals. The names of persons, especially those of princes and great landowners, constitute a very large element in local nomenclature. The name of E LLA is found in E LLES -mere (E LLA ’ S -lake); and in E LLES -croft (the field of E LLA ); and that of his son C ISSA is found in C HI -chester (C ISSAN -ceaster, the fortified residence of C ISSA ), and in C IS -bury, the city of C ISSA . C ERDIC is remembered in C HAR -ford (C ERDIC ’ S -ford), and in C HEARS -ley (C ERDIC ’ S -meadow). B EBBA , the Queen of Ida, has left her name in B AM -borough (B EBBA ’ S city —Bebban-burg). The Christian prince O SWALD , who was slain in battle, and fell at a particular place near Maserfield, has left his name in O SWES -try, or O SWALD ’ S -tree. The name of the Danish King C ANUTE is found in K NUTS -ford (C ANUTE ’ S -ford), C NUTS -delf (C ANUTE ’ S -ditch), and in C ANEW -don (C ANUTE ’ S -hill). Danish names are a very important element of the local names in the North of England— e.g. , O RMS -kirk, W ORMS -head, O RMES -by and U NST (Ormst), derive their names from some Scandinavian leader Orm or Urm. The name of R AFN or R A VEN is found in R A VEN -side (the seat or residence of R A VEN ), and in R A VEN - stone (the stone of R A VEN ). U LLER has given his name to U LLERS -thorpe, H UBBA to H UBBER -sty, and U LFR to U LLES -water and U LVER -stone. Numerous other examples might be given of names of Danish origin, but many of them will be noticed as we proceed. The following places are derived from the names of the original possessor— e.g. , A YMES -try, Elmod’s -tree. E L -ton, Elnod’s -town. P AD -stow, Adel’s -dwelling-place. L EVER -ton, Leofric’s -town. E PS -om (E BBIS -ham), Epha’s -home. W OOFFER -ton, Widferd’s -town. M ALMS -bury, St. Maidulph’s -city. W IL -ley, Willaf ’s -meadow. O FF -ham, Offa’s -home. ( d ) Names of Gods. It is well known that the ancient Teutonic tribes were heathens, and that in their original settlements they worshipped Odin, Thor, Tiw, &c., whose names are still preserved, not only in the days of the week, but in the names of numerous places. W UOTAN , W ODEN , or Odin, the presiding deity of the Northern nations, has his name preserved in O- dean, W OODEN -dean, (O DIN ’ S -hollow), W OODS -dale (O DIN ’ S -vale); W EDNES -bury and W AN -borough (O DIN ’ S -city); W EDNES -field (O DIN ’ S -field); W AM -pool (O DIN ’ S -pool); W AM -brook (O DIN ’ S -brook); W ON - stone (O DIN ’ S -stone); W ANS -ford (O DIN ’ S -ford); W ANS -beck (O DIN ’ S -rivulet); W AN -stead (O DIN ’ S - residence); W ENS -ley-fold (O DIN ’ S -meadow-enclosure); W ANS -dike (O DIN ’ S -ditch); O DIN ’ S -wald (O DIN ’ S - forest); O DEN -se (O DIN ’ S -lake.) The name of his wife, F RIGGA , F REA , or F REYJA , occurs in F REYS -torp, in F RIDAY -thorpe, and F RAIS -thorpe (F RIGGA ’ S -city.) We are reminded of T HOR by such places as T HOR -up and T HORS -torp (T HOR ’ S -city); T HOR s-dal and T URS -dale (T HOR ’ S -vale); T OR -ness (T HOR ’ S -promontory); T HURS -by, and T HURSO -by (T HOR ’ S -town); T HURDYS -toft (T HOR ’ S -field); T OR -boll (T HOR ’ S -dwelling); Kirby-Thore (Church of T HOR ); T HURS -ley, and T HUR -ley (T HOR ’ S -meadow); T HORS -aa (T HOR ’ S -stream). Thor was also known by the names of D ONAR (T HUNOR ) and H AMAR , which occurs in T HUNDERS -field (T HOR ’ S -field); and in T HUNDERS -ley (T HOR ’ S -meadow); in H AMER -ton and H OMER -ton (T HOR ’ S -town); H AMER -ton-kirk (T HOR ’ S -town-Church); H AMER -wick (T HOR ’ S -marsh); and in H AMER -stein (T HOR ’ S -stone). The name of B ALDER , the son of Odin, and god of light, is still preserved in B ALDERS -ley (the meadow of B ALDER ); B ALDERS -dale (B ALDER ’ S -vale); B OLDRE -wood (B ALDER ’ S -wood); and in B ALDERS -haye (B ALDER ’ S -enclosure); that of B RAGE , the god of orators, in B RAG -naes (B RAGE -naes, the promontory of B RAGE ). The god of war and of champions, T EU , T IW , or T YR , has his name conferred upon T EWES -ley, and T EW -ing (the meadow of T EW ), and upon T YE -hall and T YE -farm. L OK appears in L OX -wood, L OX -field, and in L OCK -ing. S EATOR appears in S ATTER -leigh, S ATTER -thwaite, and in S ATTER -land. Perhaps local names are indebted to the fairy mythology. M AB , the elf queen, occurs in M AB ’ S -hill, and the merry P UCK in P UCK -pool Bay, P OOCK -burne (P UCKE -ridge), P OOCK -hill, and P UCKE -tye. G RIM -a, a ghost, hag, or witch, is found in G RIMS -by, G RIMS -bury, G RIMMS -hoo, G RIMS -how, and in G RIMS -ditch. It is the safest plan, however, in tracing local names to their origin, to resort to such a mode for their explanation only when we find ourselves unable to offer a more rational etymology—that is to say, one in harmony with their natural or historical associations. ( B ) NAMES OF ANIMALS. The names of animals which enter largely into geographical nomenclature need little explanation; most of them, being familiar, may be easily identified. N ATE , N ET (Scandinavian) horned cattle; N EAT (English), occurs in N ATE -ly, N AT -land, and N ATE -ly Scures. The W ILD B OAR , in Anglo-Saxon E VER (éofer, ebur, efer), is found in E VER -shaw, the wild boar’s field; E VER -shot, E VERS -holt, the wild boar’s wood; E VERS -don, the wild boar’s hill; E VER -ton, the wild boar’s town or enclosure. E VER -leigh, E VER -ley, the wild boar’s meadow. E BER , the German form of this root, occurs in E BER -stein, the wild boar’s stone; E BER -bach, the wild boar’s stream; E BERS -berg, the wild boar’s hill; E BER -ach, the wild boar’s dwelling by the stream. The B EAR (B AR , B ARIN in German) no doubt was an inhabitant of the following places:— B AR -walde, the bear’s forest; B AR -uth, the bear’s region; B AREN -spring, the bear’s spring; B AREN -wald-a, the bear’s forest by the stream; B AREN -horst, the bear’s thicket. In the following places we find the name of the B ADGER (B ROC , B AW , B AUD , B AG , B ADGE , in Anglo- Saxon, and D ACHS in German):— B AG -shot, B AG -borough, B ADGEN -don, B ADGE -worth, B AGIN -thorpe, B AUGH -hurst, B AWS -ley, B AW -burgh, B AUD -rip, B AUDS -ly, B ROCK -ley, the badger’s meadow; B ROX -bourne, the badger’s stream; B ROX -ton, B ROC -ton, the badger’s town; B ROCK -thorp, the badger’s village; B ROCK -holes, the badger’s caves; B ROCK -les-by, the badger’s abode of the spring; B ROCK -dish, the badger’s ditch; B ROC -den, the badger’s hollow; D ACH -stein, the badger’s stone; D ACHS -berg, the badger’s hill. The B EA VER (in German, B IBER ), occurs in B EVER -ley, the beaver’s meadow; B EVER -born, the beaver’s stream; B IBER -ach, B IBR -a, the beaver’s abode on the stream. The Dutch form of the root B EVER occurs in B EVER -en (in the province of East Flanders), and in B EVER -n (in the duchy of Brunswick), both signifying the beaver’s river isle. The B UCK (B UCCA , in Anglo-Saxon) may be traced in B UCKEN -ham, the buck’s home; B UCK -den, the buck’s hollow; B ICK -leigh, the buck’s meadow; B OCK -field, the buck’s field; B U -cup, the buck’s hollow; B UCK -low, the buck’s hill; B OK -hurst, the buck’s forest; B UCK -land, the buck’s district; B ICKN -or, the buck’s border; B UC -kle, the buck’s spring. The low German form is B UCK , the High German, B OCK — e.g. , B OCEN -em, B OCCEN -heim, B OCK -um, the buck’s home; B OC -holt, the buck’s wood. The C OW (Cu, Cy) may be found in C OWS -ley, C OW -ley, C OW -leaze, C UERD -ley, the cow’s meadow; K AY -land, cow district; C O -dale, the cow’s vale; C OS -grove, the cow’s grove; C O -ton, C OW -ton, the cow’s town; C O -stock, C OW -fold, the cow’s fence or enclosure. The O X may be traced in O XN -ead; O X -ton, the town of the ox ; O X -ley, the meadow of the ox ; O X -ford, the ford of the ox ; O X -fold, the enclosure of the ox ; O CHSEN -werder, the island of the ox ; O XN -ey, the island of the ox ; O X -stones, the heights of the ox ; O XEN -hope, the shelter of the ox ; O CHSEN -furt, the ford of the ox ; O CHSEN -kopf, the summit of the ox The C ALF (C IELF ) occurs in K ELVE -don, the calf ’s hill; C ALVER -ley, the calf ’s meadow. The H ART (H EORT ), in German H IRSCH , is found in H ART -fold, the hart’s enclosure; H ERT -ford, H ART -ford, the hart’s ford; H ART -ing, the hart’s meadow; H ARTS -bath, the hart’s bathing place; H ART -burn, the hart’s stream; H ARTEN -stein, the hart’s stone; H IRSCH -au, the hart’s meadow; H IRSCH -berg, the hart’s hill; H IRSCH -horn, the hart’s angle; H IRSCH -feld, the hart’s field. The K ID (in Anglo-Saxon T IC , T YCH , and in German Z IEGE ), appears in K ID -land, K ID -sty, K IDDER -minster, T ICE -hurst, the kid’s forest; T ITCHEN -worth, the kid’s farm; T ITCH -borne, the kid’s stream; T ICK -ton, the kid’s town; T ITCH -marsh, the kid’s marsh; T ICKEN -ham, the kid’s home; Z IEGEN -hayn, the kid’s wood; Z IEGEN -hals, the kid’s castle; Z IEGEN -ruck, the kid’s ridge. In S TAGS -den and S TAGS -bath we see the name of the S TAG ; in D UR -ness, D EER -hurst, D EAR -ham, D YR - have, D AR -field, D ERE -ham, we find some form of the modern word D EER , with a more general signification. Like its Gothic and German cognates, it denoted any wild animal. The G OAT (G AET ) occurs as an element in the formation of the following names:— G OAD -land, G AT -acre, the goat’s field; G AT -ford, the goat’s ford; G AT -combe, the goat’s valley; G EIS -mar; G EISEN -hein; G EIS -ingen; Y AT -ton, the goat’s town. The H ARE (H ARA ) is found in H ARE -stane, the hare’s stone; H AR -pole, the hare’s pool; H AR -bottle, the hare’s dwelling; H AR -combe, the hare’s valley. The German form, H ASE , is found in H AS -lach, the hare’s lake; H AS -selt, the hare’s seat; H ASS -furt, the hare’s ford; H ASSE -field, the hare’s field and plain. The H ORSE occurs under the forms H ORS , H EST (Scandinavian) and R OSS — e.g. — H ORS -ley and R OS -ley, the horse’s meadow; H ORSEN -don, the horse’s hill; R OSS -thwaite, the horse’s path; H ORS -ham, the horse’s home; H EST Fell, the horse’s rock or hill; H ES -ket, the horse’s hut; H EST -holme, the horse’s island; H ORSE -lease, the horse’s meadow; H ORSE -ford, the horse’s ford; R OSS -heim, the horse’s home; R OSS -bach, the horse’s stream; R OSS -lau, the horse’s meadow; H ESTEN Field, the horse’s ridge. The S HEEP (S CEP ) occurs in S HIP -ley, the sheep’s meadow; S HIP -ton, the sheep’s town; S HIP -ham, the sheep’s home; S HIP -wash, the sheep’s ford; S HIP -lake, the sheep’s stream. The same root is found in S HAP -wick and S HAP -moor, S HEPPER -ton and S HEPP -ey; S KIP -ton, S KIP -sea, and S COP -wick. The German form is S CHAF , which is found in