SEX, LOVE, AND MIGRATION SEX, LOVE, AND MIGRATION Postsocialism, Modernity, and Intimacy from Istanbul to the Arctic Alexia Bloch CORNELL UNIVERSITY PRESS ITHACA AND LONDON Copyright © 2017 by Cornell University All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or parts thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. For information, address Cornell University Press, Sage House, 512 East State Street, Ithaca, New York 14850. First published 2017 by Cornell University Press Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bloch, Alexia, author. Title: Sex, love, and migration : postsocialism, modernity, and intimacy from Istanbul to the Arctic / Alexia Bloch. Description: Ithaca : Cornell University Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017025809 (print) | LCCN 2017027191 (ebook) | ISBN 9781501712050 (epub/mobi) | ISBN 9781501709418 (pdf) | ISBN 9781501713149 (cloth : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781501713156 (pbk. : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Women foreign workers—Former Soviet republics. | Women foreign workers—Turkey. | Transnationalism—Former Soviet republics. | Transnationalism—Turkey. | Post-communism—Former Soviet republics. Classification: LCC HD8528.5.A2 (ebook) | LCC HD8528.5.A2 B56 2017 (print) | DDC 331.4086/240947—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017025809 Cornell University Press strives to use environmentally responsible suppliers and materials to the fullest extent possible in the publishing of its books. Such materials include vegetable-based, low-VOC inks and acid-free papers that are recycled, totally chlorine-free, or partly composed of nonwood fibers. For further information, visit our website at cornellpress.cornell.edu. Cover photograph: The pedestrian zone of Istaklal Caddesi. Photograph by Jared Bloch, 2009. To Milind Contents List of Illustrations ix Acknowledgments xi Note on Transliteration and Translation xv Par t 1. MOBILITIES AND INTIMACIES Introduction: From the Arctic to Istanbul 3 1. Magnificent Centuries and Economies of Desire 34 Par t 2. INTIMATE PRACTICES AND GLOBAL CIRCUITS 2. Gender, Labor, and Emotion in a Global Economy 57 3. “We Are Like Slaves—Who Needs Capitalism?”: Intimate Economies and Marginal, Mobile Households 76 Par t 3. SEX, LOVE, AND UNPROMISING STATES 4. Strategic Intimacy, “Real Love,” and Marriage 115 5. Intimate Currencies: Love, Romance, and Sex “without Hang-ups” 135 6. “Other Mothers,” Grandmothers, and the State 163 Conclusion: On the Move 188 Appendix. People Featured 193 Notes 195 Bibliography 225 Index 253 ix Illustrations 1. Map of Eurasia, focused on Turkey and the Black Sea Region 7 2. In Laleli at stores catering to Russian speakers 13 3. Information card with hotline number 23 4. At a shipping office 24 5. At the “bus station” 25 6. Hürrem’s tomb beside the Süleymaniye Mosque 37 7. Haseki Hürrem Sultan or Roxelana 38 8. Four women at the Turan Bar in Beyog ̆ lu (Pera), 1930s 45 9. At a Moscow wholesale market 59 10. “Legal assistance and advice, work visas” 62 11. Farmland in Gagauzia 79 12. Map of Moldova 80 13. A street in Vulca ̆nes ‚ti 85 14. At the town crossroads 85 15. View of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church in Vulca ̆nes ‚ti 91 16. Sekond khend store with “ gumanitarka ” handwritten on the door 93 17. Women fishing off the Galata Bridge 121 18. On Istaklal Caddesi, near Taksim Square 144 19. On the Golden Horn, looking toward Süleymaniye Mosque 144 20. Promotional flyer for a Taksim nightclub 147 xi Acknowledgments Writing a book is a unique labor of love. The labor for this book project has extended well over a decade, so the list of those to whom I am indebted is quite long and diverse. The project would never have come into being without the inspiring entrepreneurial spirit of central Siberian women I met in the early 1990s, who were traveling across borders to supply their communities with cloth- ing. Likewise, my research benefited immensely from the generosity of numerous women involved in the shuttle trade or working as labor migrants from Rus- sia, southern Moldova, Ukraine, and Belarus. I owe a special thanks to those identified here as Kara, Bella, Zina, Maria, Eva, and Nelli for introducing me to their circles, as well as for providing me with something equally precious, their friendship. Maria’s, Zina’s, and Nelli’s families warmly welcomed me and my family in Istanbul, Moscow, and Moldova as this project extended through the years. A number of sources of funding supported research and writing. The Human- ities and Social Sciences (HSS) fund at the University of British Columbia (UBC), the Peter Wall Institute for Advanced Studies at UBC, and the International Research and Exchanges Board (IREX) provided support early on (2001–2003). The Social Science and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) of Canada pro- vided generous funding between 2002 and 2006, making it possible to conduct research spanning three countries, including by covering expenses to have my infant daughter accompany me. The UBC Killam Faculty Research Fellowship supported my sabbatical leave in Turkey (2007), and the UBC Arts Undergradu- ate Research Award (AURA) supported several undergraduate students to do library research. Finally, in 2016 I was fortunate to receive the UBC Dean of Arts Faculty Research Award, a form of support that could not have come at a better time; the award enabled me to set aside teaching and administrative duties for one term and focus on completing the manuscript. Acknowledgements are due for portions of the book that have appeared pre- viously, and for permissions granted for several images appearing in the book. Portions of chapter 2 were previously published in “Emotion Work, Shame, and Post-Soviet Women Entrepreneurs: Negotiating Ideals of Gender and Labor in a Global Economy,” Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power 18(4), and a version of chapter 6 was published as “‘Other Mothers,’ Migration, and a Trans- national Nurturing Nexus,” Signs: Journal of Women in Society and Culture 43(1). xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to acknowledge the Yapi Kredi Historical Archives in Istanbul for granting me permission to use an image from the Selahattin Giz Collection. Finally, I wish to thank Jared Bloch for allowing me to use three of his photographs, including for the book’s cover. I have benefited immeasurably from opportunities to try out ideas with a wide number of colleagues, and I especially wish to thank the following: the School for American Research and Carole Vance for organizing the workshop “Ethnography and Policy: What do we Know about Trafficking?” (2005); the Japanese National Museum of Ethnology (MINPAKU) and Yuki Konagaya for the “Narratives of Socialism” workshop in Osaka (2010); the Wellesley College Russian Area Studies Lecture Series and Philip Kohl for inviting me to speak at my alma mater (2012); and the Center for Semiotic Folklore Studies, Russian State University for the Humanities, and Sergey Nekliudov for so graciously hosting my participation in the seminar series “Folklore and Post-folklore” (2015). Early on in the project Marina Malysheva and Elena Tiuriukanova also encouraged me to pursue the research and facilitated access to the Moscow Center for Gender Studies. Nicole Constable deserves a separate note of appreciation for her long-term support and for inspir- ing me to think about gender and migration as an avenue for research. Finally, I am indebted to Bruce Grant for his warm collegiality over the years and for blazing a distinctive trail in the anthropology of the former Soviet Union. Spaces for writing have also been essential for completing the book. I wish to thank the School of European Languages at the English and Foreign Languages University in Hyderabad, India, for arranging library access in the summer of 2006. Likewise, the Sociology Department at Bog ̆aziçi University in Istanbul, and especially Faruk Birtek and Nükhet Sirman, kindly facilitated my research arrangements in the spring of 2007. The Department of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History afforded me a much appreciated, ongoing affiliation, including for a sabbatical year in New York (2012–2013). I am grate- ful to the Harriman Institute of Russian, Eurasian, and East European Studies at Columbia University for hosting me that same year as a Visiting Scholar; this enabled me to bring a complete draft of my manuscript into being in one of the most conducive spaces for writing that I could hope for, the library at the Union Theological Seminary. The coffee cart and its hardworking staff at the corner of 122nd Street and Broadway deserve a special acknowledgment for keeping me on track throughout 2012–2013. I wish to thank those who contributed invaluable support and feedback at various stages of this project. Maria Believa, Dikmen Bezmez, Eda Cakmakci, Hansen Chou, Jenna Dur, Tatiana Gadjalova (Boya), Alexey Golubev, Oralia Gómez-Ramírez, Susan Hicks, Sungsook Lim, Anastasia Rogova, and Jayme Tay- lor assisted me in a multitude of ways. Joan Weeks, Head and Turkish Specialist ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii at the Near East Section of the African and Middle East Division of the U.S. Library of Congress, advised me on spellings for Turkish names. Eda Cakmakci provided essential assistance for arranging image permissions with the Yapi Kredi Historical Archives, and she provided Turkish language expertise. Oralia Gómez-Ramírez ably carried out the time-consuming tasks of preparing images used in the book, including the formatting and copyright details, and creating the book’s index. Jayme Taylor crafted the maps and Anastasia Rogova atten- tively corrected Russian translations and transliterations, as well as locating elu- sive sources. Under tight deadlines at the very end of the writing process Kathryn White and Susan Dwelle took on the job of editing the manuscript; Susan espe- cially reminded me of the pitfalls of jargon and the joys of clear language. Office staff at the UBC Department of Anthropology cheerfully facilitated paperwork and grant administration throughout the project, and I especially owe grati- tude to Radicy Braletic, Joyce Ma, and Eleanore Asuncion. Finally, at Cornell University Press I am indebted to James Lance for his timely enthusiasm for the project and for shepherding the book through its production. Three anonymous reviewers were immensely helpful as I revised and sharpened key arguments and Carolyn Pouncy turned a careful eye to copyediting. Any remaining errors are my own. Friends and colleagues were essential to envisioning, carrying out, and com- pleting the project. I am grateful to Julie Cruikshank for much-needed walks, gentle advice, and treasured discussions of writing and reading, including inspired new fiction. Laurel Kendall has been a mentor and friend, offering sage counsel and sharing her keen eye for textiles and love of fine vegetarian cuisine. Nina Diamond showed me the possible depths of friendship, and read and commented on an early draft of the manuscript, as well as lending her ear and sharp eye in the last stages of manuscript preparation. Early on Michael Hathaway provided frank assessments of key conceptual frameworks. Leslie Robertson offered regu- lar reflection on the challenges of creating meaningful ethnography and she was a trusted sounding board for possible titles. Kyra ̇ubukçuog ̆lu has provided a thread of connection between Russia, Turkey, and New York that has stretched over three decades; I am also indebted to Kyra, her husband Ilhan, and their fam- ily for facilitating my research. Friends on the East and West coasts have provided welcome respite and perspective over the years; my thanks especially go to Gili Avrahami, Sumeet Gulati, Topher Jerome, Ashok Kotwal, Truus Kotwal, Nisha Malhotra, Terre Satterfield, and Homer Williams. A special note of thanks is due to Kate Swatek for the many sauna conversations and for nourishing my imagina- tion through her love of stories that link us across wide expanses of time and place, from China to Pittsburgh to New York to Vancouver. Yael, Gideon, and Dror Lavi- Shelach knew just when and where to visit, as the project commenced in Istanbul xiv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS and as it was wrapping up in Vancouver. In Russia the Savoskuls welcomed me in their home and provided me with an ideal location for initiating the project. Svetlana Savoskul aided me in making contact with shuttle traders and Oxana and Maria Savoskul consistently buoyed me with their interest in the book project. In Istanbul Thomas Bitner kindly allowed me to stay in his “tower” for research stays, short and long, Gaspard Biz shared his hearty laugh and his cosmopolitan outlook grounded in living for years in Russia and Turkey, and Gaelle Berthet shared her joie de vivre and knowledge of all the family friendly spaces one could imagine. Mostly, I was fortunate to meet Consuelo (Chelo) Echeverria early on in the research at her art installation at Istanbul’s Galata Tower; her unfailing belief in the book and her generous spirit contributed immeasurably to the project. In no small measure the book owes its existence to numerous instances of fam- ily support. Two women in particular made the research possible: my stepmother, Rebecca Sheppard, and my mother, Susan Dwelle. I am grateful to them for their unreserved willingness to care for their granddaughter, Mira, during extended fieldwork: in 2003 in Istanbul (both Rebecca and Susan), in Moldova (Rebecca), and Russia (Susan); in 2004 and 2005 in Moldova and Vermont (Rebecca); and in 2007 in Istanbul (both Rebecca and Susan). My father, John Bloch, inspired me with his deep commitment to challenging social inequality and his curiosity about rural spaces in the former Soviet Union, and he also assisted in essential care giving. My brother Jared’s discriminating photographic eye gave me some fresh perspectives on the energy and allure of Istanbul. Finally, on numerous occasions my brother Tobias’s expert logistical support in New York City consid- erably eased the difficulty of travel to and from Turkey with a small child. Finally, my immediate family has made the book project possible to envision and, ultimately, to bring to fruition. Mira’s life more or less spans the life of the research, and she has grown up knowing there are people across the world but especially in Istanbul, southern Moldova, and Russia who ask about her and revisit her infant pictures as they recall their own lives in the early years of the new millennium. Samir arrived as the research was wrapping up, reminding me of the pleasures of finding a fine balance between family and professional pursuits. I hope both Mira and Samir can ultimately see my efforts to forge a full, albeit sometimes harried, life as an example of one fulfilling way of being in the world. This way of being would not be possible to fathom without Milind Kandlikar. He unflinchingly single-parented during regular fieldwork stints, took on more than his fair share of household labor at crunch times, and reminded me to take time to laugh and enjoy a glass of wine. Mostly, he has steadfastly believed in the book. In the following pages I have tried to bring to life the trials and tribulations, but also the hopes and dreams, of women on the move between the former Soviet Union and Istanbul. I can only hope that in some small part I have succeeded. xv Note on Transliteration and Translation The Modified Library of Congress system is used in transliterating Russian from the Cyrillic. Russian, Turkish, or Moldovan place names and spellings are retained, except when there is a commonly used English version. For instance, Bosphorus, not Bog ̆aziçi, Moscow, not Moskva, and Gagauzia, not Gagauziia, are used in the text. Another challenge is posed by places that have more than one place name widely used in the present. For Chis ‚ina ̆u or Vulca ̆nes ‚ti, in Moldovan, Kishinev and Vulkaneshty, respectively, in Russian, I have retained the word used by the speaker or source. All personal names used in the text are pseudonyms, unless a person was act- ing in an official capacity. I have made an effort to use pseudonyms that were not uncommon names among women migrants I came to know from the former Soviet Union. For names in Russian I have followed the Modified Library of Con- gress system, except in the case of two names, where for the ease of the Anglo- phone reader I have used the more common English versions: Olga (instead of Ol ′ ga) and Maria (instead of Mariia). The spelling of authors’ names appears, for the most part, as in the original sources. When terms in Russian, Turkish, or Gagauz occur in the text, they are defined with the first usage. All translations from Russian to English or Turkish to English are my own unless otherwise indicated. For those readers unfamiliar with Turkish or Moldovan spellings and pronun- ciation, a few guidelines may be of use. The a ̆ appearing in Moldovan words is pronounced as “a” in a nnunciate. The c, ç, g ̆, ı, ö, s ̧, ü found in Turkish words (and the ç and s ̧ in Moldovan words) are pronounced as follows: C, c as “j” in j am ̇, ç as “ch” in ch uckle G ̆, g ̆ is usually silent, lengthens the preceding vowel I, ı a hard “i” as in fl irt Ö, ö as in French eu, as in deux S ‚, s ‚ as “sh” in sh out Ü, ü as “u” in n ew Unless otherwise indicated, monetary values are in US dollars. Part I MOBILITIES AND INTIMACIES 3 Introduction FROM THE ARCTIC TO ISTANBUL In the spring of 1999 Zhenia and I sat by an apartment window in Tura, a central Siberian town in the Evenk District. In between tapping her ashes into the stove with her long fingernails painted in a deep red, Zhenia told me about her recent buying trips. Zhenia and I had come to know each other over seven years, since just before the end of the Soviet Union. As an indigenous Siberian, Zhenia had been the beneficiary of a number of affirmative action programs still in place in educational institutions in the 1990s; she had unsuccessfully trained to become a medical assistant and later a lawyer, before dedicating herself to educating special needs children and becoming a teacher. Zhenia felt stuck in this profession when I met her in 1992, and by 1993 she had endured months at a time without receiv- ing a paycheck. Finally, in 1995 Zhenia looked to business as a profession, first working as an assistant for her older brother’s grocery supply company and then in 1998 starting her own clothing import business. Sitting in my second-story apartment we burned through a pack of Kos- mos cigarettes and watched from the window as townspeople planted potatoes. Zhenia savored recounting the travails of her year. She declared that she would not return to Central Asia. On a trip earlier that year, while making a tiring jour- ney by truck across Kazakhstan, Zhenia was mugged and lost the $1,000 she had brought along intending to purchase clothing for resale. 1 That was a hard way to make a living. She contrasted this with her satisfying and profitable trip to the United Arab Emirates (UAE). She felt lucky that she had managed to travel there, since soon after her trip the government ceased to issue visas to women