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Phonology SYLLABLE STRUCTURE: CV(C) Postal- Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal veolar Plosive p b t d k ɡ Nasal m n ŋ Tap or Flap ɾ Fricative f v s z ʃ ʒ x ɣ h Approximant j Lateral approximant l Affricates t͡s t͡ʃ d͡z d͡ʒ Diphthongs ɛɪ oi Front Central Back IPA Roman IPA Roman High ɪ ʊ ŋ w ɪ i Open-Mid e o ɾ r ɛ e Low a ʃ c ʊ u ʒ j ɛɪ ei ɣ q t͡s t͡ʃ ts tc j y d͡z dz dj d͡ʒ d͡ʒ pd͡ʒ bd͡ʒ td͡ʒ dd͡ʒ kd͡ʒ gd͡ʒ md͡ nd͡ʒ ŋd͡ʒ ŋd͡ʒ fd͡ʒ vd͡ʒ sd͡ʒ zd͡ʒ ʃd͡ʒ ʒd͡ʒ xd͡ʒ ɣd͡ʒ hd͡ʒ jd͡ʒ ld͡ʒ t͡sd͡ʒ t͡ʃd͡ʒ d͡zd͡ ʒ nd͡z ŋd͡z ŋd͡z fd͡z vd͡z sd͡z zd͡z ʃd͡z ʒd͡z xd͡z ɣd͡z hd͡z jd͡z ld͡z t͡sd͡z t͡ʃd͡z ʒ d͡ʒd͡ d͡z pd͡z bd͡z td͡z dd͡z kd͡z gd͡z md͡ t͡ʃ z ʃ nt͡ʃ ŋt͡ʃ ŋt͡ʃ ft͡ʃ vt͡ʃ st͡ʃ zt͡ʃ ʃt͡ʃ ʒt͡ʃ xt͡ʃ ɣt͡ʃ ht͡ʃ jt͡ʃ lt͡ʃ t͡st͡ʃ pt͡ʃ bt͡ʃ tt͡ʃ dt͡ʃ kt͡ʃ gt͡ʃ mt͡ zt͡ʃ d͡zt͡ʃ d͡ʒ t͡s pt͡s bt͡s tt͡s dt͡s kt͡s gt͡s mt͡s nt͡s ŋt͡s ŋt͡s ft͡s vt͡s st͡s zt͡s ʃt͡s ʒt͡s xt͡s ɣt͡s ht͡s jt͡s lt͡s t͡ʃt͡s d͡zt͡s d͡ʒt͡s l pl bl tl dl kl gl ml nl ŋl ɾl fl vl sl zl ʃl ʒl xl ɣl hl jl t͡sl t͡ʃl d͡zl d͡ʒl j pj bj tj dj kj gj mj nj ŋj ɾj fj vj sj zj ʃj ʒj xj ɣj hj lj t͡sj t͡ʃj d͡zj d͡ʒj h ph bh th dh kh gh mh nh ŋh ɾh fh vh sh zh ʃh ʒh xh ɣh jh lh t͡sh t͡ʃh d͡zh d͡ʒh ɣ pɣ bɣ tɣ dɣ kɣ gɣ mɣ nɣ ŋɣ ɾɣ fɣ vɣ sɣ zɣ ʃɣ ʒɣ xɣ ɣ ɣ hɣ jɣ lɣ t͡sɣ t͡ʃɣ d͡zɣ d͡ʒɣ Coda-Onset Harmony x px bx tx dx kx gx mx nx ŋx ɾx fx vx sx zx ʃx ʒx ɣx hx jx lx t͡sx t͡ʃx d͡zx d͡ʒx ʒ pʒ bʒ tʒ dʒ kʒ gʒ mʒ nʒ ŋʒ ɾʒ fʒ vʒ sʒ zʒ ʃʒ xʒ ɣʒ hʒ jʒ lʒ t͡sʒ t͡ʃʒ d͡zʒ d͡ʒʒ ʃ pʃ bʃ tʃ dʃ kʃ ɾʃ gʃ mʃ nʃ ŋʃ fʃ vʃ sʃ zʃ ʒʃ xʃ ɣʃ hʃ lʃ lʃ t͡sʃ t͡ʃʃ d͡zʃ d͡ʒʃ z pz bz tz dz kz gz mz nz ŋz ɾz fz vz sz ʃz ʒz xz ɣz hz jz lz t͡sz t͡ʃz d͡zz d͡ʒz s ps bs ts ds ks gs ms ns ŋs ɾs fs vs zs ʃs ʒs xs ɣs hs js ls t͡ss t͡ʃs d͡zs d͡ʒs v pv bv tv dv kv gv mv nv ŋv ɾv fv sv zv ʃv ʒv xv ɣv hv jv lv t͡sv t͡ʃv d͡zv d͡ʒv f pf bf tf df kf gf mf nf ŋf ɾf vf sf zf ʃf ʒf xf ɣf hf jf lf t͡sf t͡ʃf d͡zf d͡ʒf ɾ pɾ bɾ tɾ dɾ kɾ gɾ mɾ nɾ ŋɾ fɾ vɾ sɾ zɾ ʃɾ ʒɾ xɾ mɾ hɾ jr lɾ t͡sɾ t͡ʃɾ d͡zɾ d͡ʒɾ ŋ pŋ bŋ tŋ dŋ kŋ gŋ mŋ nŋ ɾŋ fŋ vŋ sŋ zŋ ʃŋ ʒŋ xŋ mŋ hŋ jŋ lŋ t͡sŋ t͡ʃŋ d͡zŋ d͡ʒŋ n pn bn tn dn kn gn mn ŋn ɾn fn vn sn zn ʃn ʒn xn ɣn hn jn ln t͡sn t͡ʃn d͡zn d͡ʒn m pm bm tm dm km gm nm ŋm ɾm fm vm sm zm ʃm ʒm xm ɣm hm jm lm t͡sm t͡ʃm d͡z d͡ʒ g pg bg tg dg kg mg ng ŋg ɾg fg vg sg zg ʃg lg t͡sg t͡ʃg d͡m ʒg xg ɣg hg zg d͡m ʒgjg k pk bk tk dk gk mk nk ŋk ɾk fk vk sk zk ʃk ʒk xk ɣk hk jk lk t͡sk t͡ʃk d͡zk d͡ʒk WHITE = POSSIBLE RED = IMPOSSIBLE d pd bd td kd gd md nd ŋd ɾd fd vd sd zd ʃd ʒd xd ɣd hd jd ld t͡sd t͡ʃd d͡zd d͡ʒd t pt bt dt kt gt mt nt ŋt ɾt ft vt st zt ʃt ʒt xt ɣt ht jt lt t͡st t͡ʃt d͡zt d͡ʒt b pb tb db kb gb mb nb ŋb ɾb fb vb sb zb ʃb ʒb xb ɣb hb jb lb t͡sb t͡ʃb d͡zb d͡ʒb p bp tp dp kp gp mp np ŋp ɾp fp vp sp zp ʃp ʒp xp ɣp hp jp lp t͡sp t͡ʃp d͡zp d͡ʒp p b t d k g m n ŋ ɾ f v s z ʃ ʒ x ɣ h j l t͡s t͡ʃ d͡z d͡ʒ Grammar Notation Throughout this grammar, examples and translations will require the use of notation to indicate certain patterns and relationships not obvious without notation. For example, a translation may require a literal translation of an infinitive verb which is two words in English and only one in this language. Without bracketing two words in the English translation, it is difficult to discern whether the language’s word refers to “eat” or to “to.” • [x x]: Brackets indicate that whatever they contain serves as a single grammatical unit. • PST: A three (or four, in the case of progressive verbs) capital suffix will antecede conjugated verbs as follows: ▪ PST(P) = Past (progressive) ▪ PRE(P) = Present (progressive) ▪ PRP(P) = Present perfect (progressive) ▪ FUT(P) = Future (progressive) ▪ FUP(P) = Future perfect (progressive) • PL(G): Noun prefix indicating plurality (greater than two) • Pronoun notation is as follows: ▪ 1ns = First person neuter singular ▪ 1np = First person neuter plural ▪ 2ns = Second person neuter/male singular ▪ 2np = Second person neuter/male plural ▪ 2fs = Second person female singular ▪ 2fp = Second person female plural ▪ 3ns = Third person neuter/male singular ▪ 3np = Third person neuter/male plural ▪ 3fs = Third person female singular ▪ 3fp = Third person female plural • Transitivity is notated through the suffix -TRA appended after the conjugation notation. No such suffix present indicates an intransitive verb. • Reflexivity extends the notation for transitivity by adding a -R to end of the notation. General Syntax Rules 1. Subject-Verb-Object 2. Possessor-possessed 3. Adjective-noun 4. Preposition-noun 5. Auxiliary-verb 6. Anytime a suffix, prefix, or other variation of a word requires the word to include two adjacent vowels, an r is placed between the vowels. Verbs • Subject & Object Marking: Word order dictates what in the clause is the subject and what is the object, which precede and antecede the verb, respectively. • Conjugation: Verbs, in their infinitive forms, will end in -ac, -ic, or -uc. These affixes are changed depending on what tense the verb is in, with the original vowel determining the set of conjugations used. Example: English: to eat ate Translation: etic etihud Literally: [to eat] [to eat]PST • Transitivity: Verbs are assumed to be intransitive (without a direct object) unless the conjugation suffix is marked with the transitive case by adding an o to the end of the suffix. Example: English: I ate I ate a fish Translation: ka etihud ka etihudo eqal kaju Literally: 1pns [to eat]PST 1pns [to eat]PST-TRA a fish • Ditransitivity: In the case of ditransitive verbs, which have both a direct and indirect object, the indirect object will immediately precede the verb, and any relevant preposition antecedes the direct object at the end of the clause. Example: English: I gave the fish to him Translation: xol ka otsahudo eqal kaju Literally: 3ns 1pns [to give]PST-TRA the fish to -ac Conjugation Tense Suffix Example Progressive Example Past -ahud I walked -ahudam I was walking Present -acad I walk -acam I am walking Present Perfect -actad I have walked -actam I have been walking Future -axal I will walk -axalem I will be walking Future Perfect -axtal I will have walked -axtalem I will have been walking -ic Conjugation Tense Suffix Example Progressive Example Past -ihud I walked -ihudim I was walking Present -iced I walk -icem I am walking Present Perfect -icted I have walked -ictem I have been walking Future -ixel I will walk -ixelem I will be walking Future Perfect -ixtel I will have walked -ixtelem I will have been walking -uc Conjugation Tense Suffix Example Progressive Example Past -uhud I walked -uhudum I was walking Present -ucud I walk -ucum I am walking Present Perfect -uctud I have walked -uctum I have been walking Future -uxul I will walk -uxulem I will be walking Future Perfect -uxtul I will have walked -uxtulem I will have been walking • Being Verbiage is ascribing the aspect of being, becoming, having been, et cetera… something (may be an adjective or a noun, but not a verb, which are simply conjugated in a progressive tense) to a verb, noun, or pronoun. The equivalent of a “to be” infinitive verb is “yuc” and operates as a regular verb. The placement of this verb is always immediately preceding the object of the verb. In the case of “the party was fun” (noun and adjective) the object is the adjective. In the case of “he was a fish” (noun and noun) the object is “fish.” In the latter case the “to be” verb comes between the article and the noun. Example: English: the fish was red he will be a fish Translation: qe kaju yuhud hesa xol eqal yuxul kaju Literally: the fish was red he a [will be] fish • Gerunds occur when a verb becomes a noun, marked “-ing” on verbs in English, and marked “- otai” on verbs in this case. Example: English: To eat eating Translation: etic eticotai Literally: [to eat] [to eat]”-otai” Nouns Plurality Articles Dual plurality ce- Definite ("The") qa Plurality greater than two cela- Indefinite ("A") eqal • Articles will always precede their object. Example: English: a fish Translation: eqal kaju Literally: a fish Pronouns Pronouns Singular Plural 1st Person Neuter ka kale 2nd Person Neuter/Male kot kotel 2nd Person Female ket ketel 3rd Person Neuter/Male xol xotol 3rd Person Female xel xetel • Reflexivity, when the subject also serves as the object of a clause, is achieved through changing the first consonant of the pronoun its voiced equivalent. Example: English: I appreciate him I appreciate myself Translation: ka noilacad xol ga noilacad Literally: 1ns [to appreciate]PRE 3ns myself [to appreciate] Prepositions • Prepositions are certain infinitive verb forms/roots which precede their object. Location/Movement Preposition Example Root Verb Across “We went across the bridge.” mak To go over, to cross Above “The curtain swayed above the stage.” tajaf To be high up Against “The umbrella was leaning against the door.” zeig To be adjacent Around “He went around the thorn bush to avoid it.” vorin To circumnavigate At “She slept at her house.” hak To be at Behind “The cashier worked behind the counter.” zizew To be behind Below “The basement was below the lobby.” diwuw To be down low From “He was running from the police.” lisat To leave, exit In “They went in several stores to shop.” yoiqut To be inside In front of “We waited in front of the entrance.” kuz To be in front of Into “I wandered into a different neighborhood.” qoid To enter On “She laid her beach towel on the sand.” edel To be atop Onto “He walked onto the tennis court.” anaw To continue Out of “They snuck out of the cave quickly.” betel To emerge Through “We went through a few towns to get here.” godol To travel through To/towards “She moved closer to/towards the card table.” api To approach Time Preposition Example Root Verb After “We’ll leave after the show.” ceil To follow Before “Wash your hands before cooking.” moik To lead Until “Wait until I give the signal.” vol To wait By “I have to finish by noon.” koif To conclude During “I cultivated grain during the day.” zuz To cohabitate At “They want to see me at four.” son To arrive Manner/Agent/Instrument Preposition Example Root Verb With “She excavated with her spade.” To use or operate By “He got rich by playing poker.” To oversee Adjectives and Adverbs • Adjectives immediately precede their object. Example: English: the red fish Translation: qa hesa kaju Literally: the red fish • Comparative and superlative adjectives are marked with standalone words preceding the adjective: Adjective Intensity Modifiers Comparative (“stronger”) -(r)aza Superlative (“strongest”) -(r)elaza Example: English: the slow fish, the slower fish, the slowest fish Translation: eqal dunda kaju, equal dundaraza, eqal dundarelaza Literally: the slow fish, the slower fish, the slowest fish • The conversion of an adjective into an adverb used to describe the manner of a verb is achieved by appending the -vad suffix and treating it as an adjective Example: English: she walked slowly Translation: xel dundavad midihud Literally: 3fs slow-“vad” [to walk]PST • Adjectival order: (in order of priority, starting with the highest prority) 1. Purpose 2. Material 3. Color 4. Shape 6. Age 8. Origin 5. Size 7. Opinion 9. Determiner • Possession is communicated through a pronoun preceding the possessed noun, acting as an adjective, and marked with the word “aza” between the noun and the pronoun Example: English: my fish their fish his fish Translation: ka aza kaju xotol aza kaju xol aza kaju Literally: I “aza” fish they “aza” fish he “aza” fish Interrogative Mood The interrogative mood comes in the form of the modifier word “yal”, placed after the word which requires confirmation, often an interrogative word. In translations of the questions “who ate the rice?” or “did you bring the red book? (as opposed to the blue book)” the word would antecede the equivalent words for “who” and red. Otherwise, all syntax remains the same, as if in the declarative mood. Interrogative Words Which (determiner) satsa Whose (personal possessive determiner) jaratsa Who (personal) jarat What (general) jan When (time) jadan Where (location) jeden Why (reason) jodom Whence (source) jodno How (manner) codan How many (quantity) todats Questions are split into two types; those in which interrogative words act as a pronoun (“wh-“ questions, beginning with interrogative words) and those which are answered with “yes” or “no”. • For those in which a pronoun is replaced, the question is asked by forming a declarative statement in which the subject of the verb is replaced with the interrogative word preceding the interrogative modifier (“yal”): Example: English: who ate the bread? Translation: jarat yal eticihodo qa und Literally: who ? [to eat]PST-TRA the bread • For yes/no questions, the interrogative modifier antecedes whichever word requires confirmation, whether that be a verb, noun, or otherwise: Example: English: you ate the red plant? Translation: kot eticihodo qa hesa yal dawan Literally: 2ns [to eat]PST the red ? plant