Phonology SYLLABLE STRUCTURE: CV(C) Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Postal - veolar Palatal Velar Glottal Plosive p b t d k ɡ Nasal m n ŋ Tap or Flap ɾ Fricative f v s z ʃ ʒ x ɣ h Approximant j Lateral approximant l Affricates t ͡ s t ͡ ʃ d ͡ z d ͡ ʒ Diphthongs ɛɪ oi Front Central Back IPA Roman IPA Roman High ɪ ʊ ŋ w ɪ i Open - Mid e o ɾ r ɛ e Low a ʃ c ʊ u ʒ j ɛɪ e i ɣ q t ͡ s t ͡ ʃ ts tc j y d ͡ z d ͡ ʒ dz dj C oda - Onset Harmony WHITE = POSSIBLE RED = IMPOSSIBLE p b t d k g m n ŋ ɾ f v s z ʃ ʒ x ɣ h j l t ͡ s t ͡ ʃ d ͡ z d ͡ ʒ p pb pt pd pk pg pm pn pŋ p ɾ pf pv ps pz p ʃ pʒ px p ɣ ph pj pl p t ͡ s p t ͡ ʃ p d ͡ z p d ͡ ʒ b bp bt bd bk bg bm bn bŋ b ɾ bf bv bs bz b ʃ bʒ bx b ɣ bh bj bl b t ͡ s b t ͡ ʃ b d ͡ z b d ͡ ʒ t tp tb td tk tg tm tn tŋ t ɾ tf tv ts tz t ʃ tʒ tx t ɣ th tj tl t t ͡ s t t ͡ ʃ t d ͡ z t d ͡ ʒ d dp db dt dk dg dm dn dŋ d ɾ df dv ds dz d ʃ dʒ dx d ɣ dh dj dl d t ͡ s d t ͡ ʃ d d ͡ z d d ͡ ʒ k kp kb kt kd kg km kn kŋ k ɾ kf kv ks kz k ʃ kʒ kx k ɣ kh kj kl k t ͡ s k t ͡ ʃ k d ͡ z k d ͡ ʒ g gp gb gt gd gk gm gn gŋ g ɾ gf gv gs gz g ʃ gʒ gx g ɣ gh gj gl g t ͡ s g t ͡ ʃ g d ͡ z g d ͡ ʒ m mp mb mt md mk mg mn mŋ m ɾ mf mv ms mz m ʃ mʒ mx m ɣ mh mj ml m t ͡ s m t ͡ ʃ m d ͡ z m d ͡ ʒ n np nb nt nd nk ng nm nŋ n ɾ nf nv ns nz n ʃ nʒ nx n ɣ nh nj nl n t ͡ s n t ͡ ʃ n d ͡ z n d ͡ ʒ ŋ ŋp ŋb ŋt ŋd ŋk ŋg ŋm ŋn ŋ ɾ ŋf ŋv ŋs ŋz ŋ ʃ ŋʒ ŋx ŋ ɣ ŋh ŋj ŋl ŋ t ͡ s ŋ t ͡ ʃ ŋ d ͡ z ŋ d ͡ ʒ ɾ ɾ p ɾ b ɾ t ɾ d ɾ k ɾ g ɾ m ɾ n ɾ ŋ ɾ f ɾ v ɾ s ɾ z ɾʃ ɾ ʒ ɾ x ɾɣ ɾ h ɾ j ɾ l ŋ t ͡ s ŋ t ͡ ʃ ŋ d ͡ z ŋ d ͡ ʒ f fp fb ft fd fk fg fm fn fŋ f ɾ fv fs fz f ʃ fʒ fx f ɣ fh fj fl f t ͡ s f t ͡ ʃ f d ͡ z f d ͡ ʒ v vp vb vt vd vk vg vm vn vŋ v ɾ vf vs vz v ʃ vʒ vx v ɣ vh vj vl v t ͡ s v t ͡ ʃ v d ͡ z v d ͡ ʒ s sp sb st sd sk sg sm sn sŋ s ɾ sf sv sz s ʃ sʒ sx s ɣ sh sj sl s t ͡ s s t ͡ ʃ s d ͡ z s d ͡ ʒ z zp zb zt zd zk zg zm zn zŋ z ɾ zf zv zs z ʃ zʒ zx z ɣ zh zj zl z t ͡ s z t ͡ ʃ z d ͡ z z d ͡ ʒ ʃ ʃ p ʃ b ʃ t ʃ d ʃ k ʃ g ʃ m ʃ n ʃ ŋ ʃɾ ʃ f ʃ v ʃ s ʃ z ʃ ʒ ʃ x ʃɣ ʃ h ʃ j ʃ l ʃ t ͡ s ʃ t ͡ ʃ ʃ d ͡ z ʃ d ͡ ʒ ʒ ʒp ʒb ʒt ʒd ʒk ʒg ʒm ʒn ʒŋ ʒ ɾ ʒf ʒv ʒs ʒz ʒ ʃ ʒx ʒ ɣ ʒh ʒj ʒl ʒ t ͡ s ʒ t ͡ ʃ ʒ d ͡ z ʒ d ͡ ʒ x xp xb xt xd xk xg xm xn xŋ x ɾ xf xv xs xz x ʃ xʒ x ɣ xh xj xl x t ͡ s x t ͡ ʃ x d ͡ z x d ͡ ʒ ɣ ɣ p ɣ b ɣ t ɣ d ɣ k ɣ g ɣ m ɣ n mŋ m ɾ ɣ f ɣ v ɣ s ɣ z ɣʃ ɣ ʒ ɣ x ɣ ɣ ɣ h ɣ j ɣ l ɣ t ͡ s ɣ t ͡ ʃ ɣ d ͡ z ɣ d ͡ ʒ h hp hb ht hd hk hg hm hn hŋ h ɾ hf hv hs hz h ʃ hʒ hx h ɣ hj hl h t ͡ s h t ͡ ʃ h d ͡ z h d ͡ ʒ j jp jb jt jd jk jg jm jn jŋ jr jf jv js jz l ʃ jʒ jx j ɣ jh jl j t ͡ s j t ͡ ʃ j d ͡ z j d ͡ ʒ l lp lb lt ld lk lg lm ln lŋ l ɾ lf lv ls lz l ʃ lʒ lx l ɣ lh lj l t ͡ s l t ͡ ʃ l d ͡ z l d ͡ ʒ t ͡ s t ͡ sp t ͡ sb t ͡ st t ͡ sd t ͡ sk t ͡ sg t ͡ sm t ͡ sn t ͡ sŋ t ͡ s ɾ t ͡ sf t ͡ sv t ͡ ss t ͡ sz t ͡ s ʃ t ͡ sʒ t ͡ sx t ͡ s ɣ t ͡ sh t ͡ sj t ͡ sl t ͡ s t ͡ ʃ t ͡ s d ͡ z t ͡ s d ͡ ʒ t ͡ ʃ t ͡ ʃ p t ͡ ʃ b t ͡ ʃ t t ͡ ʃ d t ͡ ʃ k t ͡ ʃ g t ͡ ʃ m t ͡ ʃ n t ͡ ʃ ŋ t ͡ ʃɾ t ͡ ʃ f t ͡ ʃ v t ͡ ʃ s t ͡ ʃ z t ͡ ʃʃ t ͡ ʃ ʒ t ͡ ʃ x t ͡ ʃɣ t ͡ ʃ h t ͡ ʃ j t ͡ ʃ l t ͡ ʃ t ͡ s t ͡ ʃ d ͡ z t ͡ ʃ d ͡ ʒ d ͡ z d ͡ zp d ͡ zb d ͡ zt d ͡ zd d ͡ zk d ͡ zg d ͡ z m d ͡ zn d ͡ zŋ d ͡ z ɾ d ͡ zf d ͡ zv d ͡ zs d ͡ zz d ͡ z ʃ d ͡ zʒ d ͡ zx d ͡ z ɣ d ͡ zh d ͡ zj d ͡ zl d ͡ z t ͡ s d ͡ z t ͡ ʃ d ͡ z d ͡ ʒ d ͡ ʒ d ͡ ʒ p d ͡ ʒ b d ͡ ʒ t d ͡ ʒ d d ͡ ʒ k d ͡ ʒ g d ͡ ʒ m d ͡ ʒ n d ͡ ʒ ŋ d ͡ ʒ ɾ d ͡ ʒ f d ͡ ʒ v d ͡ ʒ s d ͡ ʒ z d ͡ ʒ ʃ d ͡ ʒ ʒ d ͡ ʒ x d ͡ ʒ ɣ d ͡ ʒ h d ͡ ʒ j d ͡ ʒ l d ͡ ʒ t ͡ s d ͡ ʒ t ͡ ʃ d ͡ ʒ d ͡ z Grammar Notation Throughout this grammar, examples and translations will require the use of notation to indicate certain patterns and relationships not obvious without notation. For example, a translation may require a literal translation of an infinitive verb which is two words in English and only one in this language. Without bracketing two words in the English translation, it is diffi cult to discern whether the language’s word refers to “eat” or to “to.” • [x x]: Brackets indicate that whatever they contain serves as a single grammatical unit. • PST: A three (or four, in the case of progressive verbs) capital suffix will antecede conjugat ed verbs as follows: ▪ PST (P) = Past (progressive) ▪ PRE (P) = Present (progressive) ▪ PRP (P) = Present perfect (progressive) ▪ FUT(P) = Future (progressive) ▪ FUP(P) = Future perfect (progressive) • PL(G): Noun prefix indicating plurality (greater than two) • Pronou n notation is as follows : ▪ 1n s = First person neuter singula r ▪ 1np = First person neuter plural ▪ 2ns = Second person neuter/male singular ▪ 2np = Second person neuter/male plural ▪ 2fs = Second person female singular ▪ 2fp = Second person female plural ▪ 3ns = Third person neuter/male singular ▪ 3np = Third person neuter/male plural ▪ 3fs = Third person female singular ▪ 3fp = Third person female plural • Transitivity is notated through the suffix - TRA appended after the conjugation notation. No s uch suffix present indicates an intransitive verb • Reflexivity extends the notation for transitivity by adding a - R to end of the notation. General Syntax Rules 1. S ubject - V erb - O bject 2. Possessor - possesse d 3. Adjective - noun 4. Preposition - noun 5. Auxiliary - verb 6. Anytime a suffix, prefix, or other variation of a word requires the word to include two adjacent vowels, an r is placed between the vowels. Verbs • Subject & Object Marking : Word order dictates what in the clause is the subject and what is the object, which precede and antecede the verb, respectively. • Conjugation: Verbs, in their infinitive forms, will end in - ac, - ic, or - uc . These affixes are changed depending on what tense the verb is in, with the original vowel determining the set of conjugations used Example: English: to eat ate Translation: etic etihud Literally: [ to eat ] [ to eat ]PST • Transitivity : Verbs are assumed to be intransitive (without a direct object) unless the conjugation suffix is marked with the transitive case by adding an o to the end of the suffix. Example: English: I ate I ate a fish Translation: ka etihud ka etihudo eqal kaju Literally: 1pns [to eat] PST 1pns [to eat]PST - TRA a fish • Ditransitivity : In the case of ditransitive verbs, which have both a direct and indirect object, the indirect object will immediately precede the verb, and any relevant prepos ition antecedes the direct object at the end of the clause. Example: English: I gave the fish to him Translation: xol ka otsahudo eqal kaju Literally: 3ns 1pns [to give]PST - TRA the fish to - ac Conjugation Tense Suffix Example Progressive Example Past - ah u d I walked - ah u d a m I was walking Present - aca d I walk - acam I am walking Present Perfect - acta d I have walked - actam I have been walking Future - axal I will walk - axalem I will be walking Future Perfect - axtal I will have walked - axtalem I will have been walking - ic Conjugation Tense Suffix Example Progressive Example Past - ih u d I walked - ih u dim I was walking Present - ice d I walk - icem I am walking Present Perfect - icte d I have walked - ictem I have been walking Future - ixel I will walk - ixelem I will be walking Future Perfect - ixtel I will have walked - ixtelem I will have been walking - uc Conjugation Tense Suffix Example Progressive Example Past - uh u d I walked - uh u dum I was walking Present - ucu d I walk - ucum I am walking Present Perfect - uctu d I have walked - uctum I have been walking Future - uxul I will walk - uxulem I will be walking Future Perfect - uxtul I will have walked - uxtulem I will have been walking • Being Verbiage is ascribing the aspect of being, becoming, having been, et cetera... something (may be an adjective or a noun , but not a verb, which are simply conjugated in a progressive tense) to a verb, noun, or pronoun. The equivalent of a “to be” infinitive verb is “yuc ” and operates as a regular verb. The placement of this verb is always immediately preceding the object of the verb. In the case of “the party was fun” (noun and adjective) the object is the adjective. In the case of “he was a fish” (noun and noun) the obj ect is “fish.” In the latter case the “to be” verb comes between the article and the noun. Example: English: the fish was red he w ill be a fish Translation: qe kaju yuhud hesa xol eqal yuxul kaju Literally: the fish was red he a [will be] fish • Gerund s occur when a verb becomes a noun, marked “ - ing” on verbs in English, and marked “ - otai” on verbs in this case. Example: English: To eat eating Translation: etic eticotai Literally: [to eat] [to eat]” - otai” Nouns • Articles will always pr e cede their object Example: English: a fish Translation: eqal kaju Literally: a fish Plurality Dual plurality c e - Plurality greater than two c e la - Articles Definite ("The") qa Indefinite ("A") eqal Pronouns Pronouns Singular Plural 1st Person Neuter ka kale 2nd Person Neuter/Male kot kotel 2nd Person Female ket ketel 3rd Person Neuter/Male xol xotol 3rd Person Female xel xetel • Reflexivity , when the subject also serves as the object of a clause, is achieved through changing the first consonant of the pronoun its voiced equivalent. Example: English: I appreciate him I appreciate myself Translation: ka noilacad xol ga noilacad Literally: 1ns [to appreciate]PRE 3ns myself [to appreciate] Prepositions • Prepositio n s are certain infinitive verb forms/roots which precede their object Location /Movement Preposition Example Root Verb Across “We went across the bridge.” m ak To go over, to cross Above “The curtain swayed above the stage .” t ajaf To be high up Against “The umbrella was leaning against the door.” z eig To be a djacent Around “He went around the thorn bush to avoid it.” v orin To circumnavigate At “She slept at her house.” hak To be at Behind “The cashier worked behind the counter.” z izew To be behind Below “The basement was below the lobby.” d iwuw To be down low From “He was running from the police.” lisat To leave, exit In “They went in several stores to shop.” yoiqut To be inside In front of “We waited in front of the entrance.” k uz To be in front of Into “I wandered into a different neighborhood.” q oid To enter On “She laid her beach towel on the sand.” edel To be atop Onto “He walked onto the tennis court.” a naw To continue Out of “They snuck out of the cave quickly.” betel To emerge Through “We went through a few towns to get here.” godol To travel through To/towards “She moved closer to/towards the card table.” api To approach Time Preposition Example Root Verb After “We’ll leave after the show.” ceil To follow Before “Wash your hands before cooking.” moik To lead Until “Wait until I give the signal.” vol To wait By “I have to finish by noon.” koif To conclude During “I cultivated grain during the day.” zuz To cohabitate At “They want to see me at four.” son To arrive Manner/Agent/Instrument Preposition Example Root Verb With “She excavated with her spade.” To use or operate By “He got rich by playing poker.” To oversee Adjectives and Adverbs • Adjectives immediately precede their object Example: English: the red fish Translation: qa hesa kaju Literally: the red fish • Comparative and superlative adjectives are marked with standalone words preceding the adjective: Adjective Intensity Modifiers Comparative (“strong er ”) - (r) aza Superlative (“strong est”) - (r) elaza Example: English: the slow fish, the slower fish, the slowest fish Translation: eqal dunda kaju, equal dundaraza, eqal dundarelaza Literally: the slow fish, the slower fish, the slowest fish • T he conversion of an adjective into an adverb used to describe the manner of a verb is achieved by appending the - vad suffix and treating it as an adjective Example: English: sh e walked slowly Translation: x e l dundavad midihud Literally: 3 f s slow - “vad” [to walk]PST • Adjectival order: (in order of priority, starting with the highest prority) 1. Purpose 2. Material 3. Color 4. Shape 5. Size 6. Age 7. Opinion 8. Origin 9. Determiner • Possession is communicated through a pronoun preceding the possessed noun, acting as an adjective, and marked with the word “aza” between the noun and the pronoun Example: English: m y fish t heir fish h is fish Translation: ka aza kaju xotol aza kaju xol aza kaju Literally: I “aza” fish they “aza” fish he “aza” fish Interrogative Mood The interrogative mood comes in the form of the modifier word “ yal ” , placed after the word which requires confirmation, often an interrogative word. In translation s of the questions “who ate the rice?” or “did you bring the red book? (as opposed to the blue book)” the word would antecede the equivalent words for “who” and red. Otherwise, all syntax remains the same, as if i n the declarative mood. Questions are split into two types; those in which interrogative words act as a pronoun ( “ wh - “ questions, beginning with interrogative words) and those which are answered with “ yes ” or “ no ” • F or those in which a pronoun is replaced , the question is as ked by forming a declarative statement in which the subject of the verb is replaced with the interrogative word preceding the interrogative modif ier ( “ yal ” ) : E xample : English: w ho ate the bread ? Translation: jarat yal etic ihod o qa und Literally: w ho ? [to eat] PST - TRA the bread • For yes/no qu es tions , the interrogative modifier antecedes whichever w ord requires confirmation, whether that be a v e rb, noun, or otherwise : Interrogative Words Which (determiner) satsa Whose (personal possessive determiner) jaratsa Who (personal) jarat What (general) jan When (time) jadan Where (location) jeden Why (reason) jodom Whence (source) jodno How (manner) codan How many (quantity) todats E xample : English: y ou ate the red plant ? Translation: kot eticihod o qa hesa yal dawan Literally: 2ns [to eat]PST the red ? plant