New Trends in 3D Printing Edited by Igor V Shishkovsky NEW TRENDS IN 3D PRINTING Edited by Igor V Shishkovsky New Trends in 3D Printing http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/61398 Edited by Igor V Shishkovsky Contributors Daniel Guenther, Florian Moegele, Anne Isabelle Mertens, Jacqueline Lecomte-Beckers, Koichi Yano, Igor V. Shishkovsky, zengxi pan, Donghong Ding, Dominic Cuiuri, Huijun Li, Stephen Van Duin, Kaida Xiao, Julian Yates, Faraedon M. Mostafa, Ali Sohaib, Sophie Wuerger, Vadim Sufiiarov, Anatoliy Popovich, Heron Werner, Jorge Roberto Lopes Dos Santos, Leonardo Frajhof, Bruno Alvares De Azevedo, Luiz Lanziotti, Elyzabeth Avvad Portari, Sidnei Paciornik, Haimon Diniz Lopes Alves, Guangxue Chen, Hao Yin, Chen Chen, Liuxi He, Jiangping Yuan, Giovanni Biglino, Claudio Capelli, Andrew Taylor, Silvia Schievano, Păcurar Răzvan, Ancuta Carmen Păcurar © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2016 The moral rights of the and the author(s) have been asserted. 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Print ISBN 978-953-51-2479-5 Online ISBN 978-953-51-2480-1 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-953-51-5778-6 Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI) Interested in publishing with us? Contact book.department@intechopen.com Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected. For more information visit www.intechopen.com 3,250+ Open access books available 151 Countries delivered to 12.2% Contributors from top 500 universities Our authors are among the Top 1% most cited scientists 106,000+ International authors and editors 112M+ Downloads We are IntechOpen, the world’s largest scientific publisher of Open Access books. Meet the editor Igor Shishkovsky is Leading Researcher in Lebedev Physical Institute (LPI) of Russian Academy of Sci- ences (RAS), Samara branch, Russian Federation (RF). He holds a Doctor of Sciences degree in the chemical physics (including physics of combustion and explo- sion) from the Institute of Structural Macrokinetics and Material Science of RAS, Chernogolovka, and PhD in solid state physics from LPI of RAS, Moscow. He was teaching as Profes- sor at Samara State Technical University and Moscow State Technological University and as Invited Professor at Ecole Nationale d’Ingenieurs de Saint Etienne, France. Contents Preface XI Section 1 Advanced 3D Printing 1 Chapter 1 Advanced Design for Additive Manufacturing: 3D Slicing and 2D Path Planning 3 Donghong Ding, Zengxi Pan, Dominic Cuiuri, Huijun Li and Stephen van Duin Chapter 2 Color 3D Printing: Theory, Method, and Application 25 Guangxue Chen, Chen Chen, Zhaohui Yu, Hao Yin, Liuxi He and Jiangping Yuan Chapter 3 Additive Manufacturing of Casting Tools Using Powder-Binder- Jetting Technology 53 Daniel Günther and Florian Mögele Section 2 Medical Applications of 3D Printing 87 Chapter 4 Colour Image Reproduction for 3D Printing Facial Prostheses 89 Kaida Xiao, Sophie Wuerger, Faraedon Mostafa, Ali Sohaib and Julian M Yates Chapter 5 3D-Printed Models Applied in Medical Research Studies 111 Jorge Roberto Lopes dos Santos, Heron Werner, Bruno Alvares de Azevedo, Luiz Lanziotti, Elyzabeth Avvad Portari, Sidnei Paciornik and Haimon Diniz Lopes Alves Chapter 6 3D Printing Cardiovascular Anatomy: A Single-Centre Experience 123 Giovanni Biglino, Claudio Capelli, Andrew M. Taylor and Silvia Schievano Chapter 7 Regenerative Repair of Bone Defects with Osteoinductive Hydroxyapatite Fabricated to Match the Defect and Implanted with CAD, CAM, and Computer-Assisted Surgery Systems 143 Koichi Yano, Takashi Namikawa, Takuya Uemura, Yasunori Kaneshiro and Kunio Takaoka Section 3 Perspective Powder Additive Manufacturing 159 Chapter 8 Applications of the Selective Laser Melting Technology in the Industrial and Medical Fields 161 Pacurar Razvan and Pacurar Ancuta Chapter 9 On the Role of Interfacial Reactions, Dissolution and Secondary Precipitation During the Laser Additive Manufacturing of Metal Matrix Composites: A Review 187 Anne I. Mertens and Jacqueline Lecomte-Beckers Chapter 10 Metal Powder Additive Manufacturing 215 Anatoliy Popovich and Vadim Sufiiarov Chapter 11 Laser-Assisted 3D Printing of Functional Graded Structures from Polymer Covered Nanocomposites: A Self-Review 237 Igor Volyanskii and Igor V. Shishkovsky X Contents Preface A quarter century period of the 3D printing technology development affords ground for speaking about new realities or the formation of a new technological system of digital man‐ ufacture (DM), replacing the existing system based on the use of computers, Internet and nanotechnologies. During this period, the 3D printing has undergone numerous significant changes on its way (Figure 1) resulting in an extra accuracy, enhanced mechanical features, broader scope and reduced costs of installations and of 3D parts and tools made by them. The 3D printing ad‐ vantage is not only the arbitrariness of the shape but also the possibility of its instantaneous transfer to any point of the world that allows the industrial engineering on a world-wide scale. Cloud technologies and digital approaches have permitted a digital conceptualization for consumers, product creation and/or distribution. Successfulness of enterprises establish‐ ed on the 3D printing base is explained by their ability to recognize and estimate the market demand, which can be satisfied by creative supply of digital products. Figure 1. 3D printing progress from prototypes through functional tools and 3D parts to new technological system and digital partnership. In our opinion, the up-to-date 3D printing is at the top of its own overrated expectations. In spite of the fact that many customers consider the 3D printing methods as “breaking through” and crucial for the new technological revolution (technological system), their influ‐ ence in terms of the world-wide manufacture is so far insignificant. The development of scalable, high-speed methods of the material 3D printing aimed to increase the productivity and operating volume of the 3D printing machines requires new original decisions. In recent years a close attention is paid to hybrid systems of the 3D printing, capable of cre‐ ating in a unified technological process of finished structural 3D parts with built-in electron‐ ic, biological and /or chemical components, placed there by direct deposition or direct writing that allows along with the CAD-CAM of components, to make completely integrat‐ ing electro-(/bio-) mechanic products (micro/nano-electro-mechanical systems — M/NEMS) as holistic or integral systems (Figure 2). Well known are the studies in such directions as optical MEMS (photon crystals, mirrors, optical switches, connectors, lens, PZT actuators etc), bio-MEMS (implants, scaffolds etc), microfluidic MEMS (drug delivery systems, lab-on- chip, pumps, catalyst membranes etc), power MEMS (fuel cells and batteries, energy har‐ vesting, magnetic devices etc), and radiofrequency MEMS (antennas, resonators & oscillators, actuators, phase shifter, band-pass filters etc). However, the tasks of the MEMS fabrication with feedback control, adaptive management and possibilities of prediction and response for the 3D printing processes still demand their solutions. Figure 2. Scope of micro/nano-electro mechanical systems. Materials are also an essential and integral part of the 3D printing technologies. The key problem for the materials design, manufacturing and processing is the improvement of their quality, expansion of the suitable materials spectrum (due to mixing/ alloying/ composite’s modeling), increase of the process stability, repeatability and reliability for multi-material systems, with the retention of a low cost of materials, the process of their fabrication and pre- and/or post- processing. For a great number of materials and the 3D printing processes large-scale studies are re‐ quired, as well as the determination of correlations "process–structure–feature". Of not less interest are the problems of using the unique possibilities of the 3D printing for creation of the unique structures not existing in nature or reproducing its best qualities (e.g., parts with XII Preface negative coefficient of thermal expansion or electromagnetic wave transmission), metamate‐ rials, biomimetic composite constructions and surfaces. It is necessary to study the 3D printing applicability for manufacturing of the materials with multilevel hierarchical functionality on nano-, micro- and meso-scales and also the develop‐ ment of instruments for fabrication of 3D printing structures via atom-by-atom approach, and design of additive nanofabricators. Some of the above mentioned problems and issues are considered in this book which con‐ sists three parts. The first part offers advanced approaches for the 3D printing methods. The second part is completely dedicated to medical applications of the 3D printing where the main advantage of additive technologies is realized, i.e. the ability to use individual data of each patient, herewith solving the problems of the products personalization. It’s probable that among readers are those occupied with studies of layerwise approaches to fabrication of the human organs, and we hope that some of the authors’ ideas described in this part of the monograph could be useful for them. Finally, the third part of the monograph presents some new approaches for the powdered methods of the 3D printing that can also find appli‐ cations for medical, aerospace and/or automotive industries, always being the key branches facilitating the innovation development in the additive manufacture. Prof. Igor V. Shishkovsky Laboratory of Laser Technologies, Samara branch of P.N. Lebedev Physical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences Samara, Russian Federation Preface XIII Section 1 Advanced 3D Printing Chapter 1 Advanced Design for Additive Manufacturing: 3D Slicing and 2D Path Planning Donghong Ding, Zengxi Pan, Dominic Cuiuri, Huijun Li and Stephen van Duin Additional information is available at the end of the chapter http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/63042 Abstract Commercial 3D printers have been increasingly implemented in a variety of fields due to their quick production, simplicity of use, and cheap manufacturing. Soft‐ ware installed in these machines allows automatic production of components from computer-aided design (CAD) models with minimal human intervention. However, there are fewer options provided, with a limited range of materials, limited path patterns, and layer thicknesses. For fabricating metal functional parts, such as laser- based, electron beam-based, and arc-welding-based additive manufacturing (AM) machines, usually more careful process design requires in order to obtain compo‐ nents with the desired mechanical and material properties. Therefore, advanced design for additive manufacturing, particularly slicing and path planning, is necessary for AM experts. This chapter introduces recent achievements in slicing and path planning for AM process. Keywords: Additive Manufacturing, GMAW, GTAW, Path Planning, 3D Slicing, Welding, Medial Axis Transform, STL 1. 3D CAD slicing AM requires an input computer-aided design (CAD) model of the part which may be de‐ signed in a CAD system, or obtained from reverse engineering such as 3D scanners. Once the CAD model is completed, it is converted to the standard STL format, which is most common‐ ly used to represent 3D CAD models in additive manufacturing. A section of an STL file and its 3D model are shown in Figure 1 . In an ASCII STL file, the CAD model is represented using © 2016 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. triangular facets, which is described by the x-, y-, and z-coordinates of the three vertices and a unit vector to indicate the normal direction that point outside of the facet [1]. Redundant information for indicating model name, facet normal, and vertex is also included. In the following sections, unidirection slicing and multidirection slicing of STL models are described. Figure 1. Example of an STL file format and its model. 2. Unidirection slicing Unidirection slicing algorithm slices the STL model into a variety of 2.5D layers parallel to the build direction. Figure 2a shows an STL model and various cutting planes for unidirection slicing; and Figure 2b shows the resulting slicing layers which are polygons. Figure 2. (a) STL model with slicing layers in unidirection; (b) Resulting layer boundary polygons. Uniform slicing method slices CAD model with a constant thickness. The accuracy of the additively manufactured parts could be controlled by altering the layer thickness. The smaller the layer thickness, the higher the accuracy will be obtained. Also, the deposition rate or productivity is highly relevant to the sliced layer thickness. Adaptive slicing approach slices New Trends in 3D Printing 4 a model with a variable thickness. Based on the surface geometry of the model, this approach adjusts automatically the layer thickness to improve the accuracy or to improve the build time. With the increasing size of the STL file, a major challenge of slicing algorithms is the computing efficiency. An efficient and fault-tolerant slicing algorithm was proposed by Choi et al. [2]. The detailed slicing algorithm is presented as follows. Figure 3 shows the flowchart of the tolerant slicing algorithm [2]. Two stages are included, namely, preprocessing stage regarding the optimum orientation of the part, and slicing stage generating slices from STL model. The orientation of the STL model is usually user defined or obtained with respect to the optimal build time, the surface quality, support structures required, or other criteria. Algorithms regarding the orientation of CAD models are beyond the scope of this chapter. Figure 3. Flowchart of the tolerance slicing algorithm [2]. For each layer construction in slicing, the method scans the STL file to extract one facet at a time sequentially and compares the z-coordinates of its three vertices to the z-height of the slicing (cutting) plane. Through setting a small value bound tolerance, the possibilities of Advanced Design for Additive Manufacturing: 3D Slicing and 2D Path Planning http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/63042 5 intersection of a facet with a cutting plane can be divided into the following four classes, as shown in Figure 4 [2]. Four classes could be found as following. Figure 4. Possible cases of facet-plane slicing [2]. Class 1 is shown in case 1 in Figure 4 , where a facet intersects with the cutting plane without one vertex lies on the plane. Two intersecting points are calculated by the intersection of the plane and the triangular facet in this case. A line segment is generated by connecting the intersection points and stored for constructing the slice layer contour [2]. Class 2 is shown in case 2 in Figure 4 , where one vertex lies in the cutting plane while the two remaining vertices lie in different sides of the cutting plane. Case 3 and case 4 also show that New Trends in 3D Printing 6