Name: __________________________________________________________________ Date: _____________________ KEY - Anatomy and Physiology Semester 1 Study Guide Directions: To complete this study guide, use the past slide decks, your own notes, and other class materials. If something is not included in this study guide, it will NOT show up on the exam! I. Tissues Epithelial Tissue 1. Give the functions of epithelial tissue: Provide physical protection, control permeability, provide sensation, produce specialized secretions Draw or describe each of the following types of epithelial tissue Simple Squamous Simple Cuboidal Simple Columnar Stratified Squamous Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Transitional Connective Tissue Give the functions of connective tissue: Bind, support, and protect other tissues. Store and transport materials Define and/or illustrate the following connective tissue terms: 2. Ground substance: A basic component of connective tissue (can be fluid, semi solid, or solid) 3. Fibroblasts: Produce connective tissue fibers and ground substance (make matrix items) 4. Collagen fibers: Long, straight, and unbranched 5. Elastic fibers: Contain the protein elastin. Branched and wavy 6. Reticular fibers: Same protein unties as collage fibers, but thinner, branching, and interwoven 7. Mast cells: Small, mobile connective tissue cells. Cytoplasm packed with vesicles. Begin the body’s defensive mechanisms 8. Areolar tissue: Cushions organs, provides support, limits independent movement, and defense against pathogens. (Beneath dermis of skin, digestive tract, etc) 9. Adipose tissue: Provides padding and cushions shocks, insulates, stores energy (Under skin, between organs, etc) 10. Blood: Transports oxygen, fights pathogens 11. Hyaline Cartilage: Provides stiff but flexible support. Reduce friction between bone surfaces. Contains mostly collagen fibers (Between ribs and sternum, etc.) 12. Elastic Cartilage: Like hyaline cartilage, but contains mostly elastic fibers. Can distort without damage and return to its original shape (external ear, etc.) 13. Bone: Structure of the body (the skeleton) *YOU MAY BE ASKED TO IDENTIFY TYPES OF EPITHELIAL AND/OR CONNECTIVE TISSUE BASED ON PICTURES* II. Skeletal System Give the functions of the skeletal system: Structural support, stores mineral salts, blood cell production, protection, movement Define the following skeletal system terms 14. Hydroxyapatite: A form of calcium phosphate that provides structural stability, hardness, and support for bone function 15. Lacuna: Small pockets of osteocytes 16. Lamellae: Narrow sheets of calcified matrix. The stuff surrounding the central canal/in osteon 17. Canaliculi: Tiny cracks between lacuni to diffuse and transport materials 18. Haversian Canal: Central vertical canal 19. Perforating Canal: Horizontal canals 20. Trabeculae: Bony shafts or rods and plates in spongy bone 21. Osteocyte: Maintain normal bone structure by recycling calcium salts into the bony matrix for repairs 22. Osteoclast: Secrets acids and enzymes to dissolve the body matrix - Takes the bone matrix apart 23. Osteoblast: Responsible for making NEW bone in a process called ossification 24. Ossification: Replacing of other tissues with bone 25. Calcification: Deposition of calcium salts during ossification 26. Interstitial Growth: Growth in length - the epiphyseal plates allow for more cartilage to be added to be ossified by osteoblasts, growing the bone 27. Appositional Growth: Growth in diameter - additional bony matrix is produced 28. Greenstick Fracture: One side of the bone is broken and the other is bent 29. Transverse Fracture: Break where the fracture line is perpendicular to the bone shaft 30. Linear Fracture: Break where the fracture is parallel to the bone shaft 31. Comminuted Fracture: A bone that has shattered into more than two pieces 32. Spiral Fracture: A fracture that winds around the length of the bone 33. Compound Fracture: A severe break where the bone breaks through the skin 34. Fracture Hematoma: A large blood clot that occurs even in a small fracture when many blood vessels are broken (first step of healing) 35. Cartilaginous Callus: A temporary formation by chondrocytes that produce hyaline cartilage at the area of a break (second step of healing) 36. Bony Callus: What replaces the cartilaginous callus and has an area of new bone at a break site (third step of healing) Match the clinical condition to its description 37. __C__ Osteoarthritis A. Painful infection of the bone 38. __F__ Rheumatoid Arthritis B. A condition resulting in the failure of the vertebrae to form properly 39. __G__ Herniated Disc C. Degenerative arthritis; result of wear and tear at joint surfaces 40. __A__ Osteomyelitis D. A condition that involves weak, brittle bones. A result of a vitamin C deficiency 41. __E__ Rickets E. A childhood disorder that reduces the amount of calcium salts in the skeleton or vitamin D 42. __D__ Scurvy F. Autoimmune arthritis; the immune system mistakenly attacks joint tissues 43. __B__ Spina Bifida G. Intervertebral compression severe enough to rupture the gelatinous layer within the vertebrae Describe what the body will do to maintain homeostasis in the following scenarios 44. If there is HIGH calcium levels in body fluid Thyroid gland will produce calcitonin 45. If there is LOW calcium levels in body fluid Parathyroid gland will produce parathyroid hormone YOU WILL NEED TO KNOW THE NAMES OF THE BONES, NOT THE SPECIFIC PIECES (processes, foramen, notches, etc) (if you are given a diagram, you must name the bone) *Bones that are not listed here, you do not need to worry about You need to know: ● Facial bones (Maxilla, mandible, nasal bone) ● Skull bones (Frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, parietal, temporal, occipital) ● Vertebral column/spine (Vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx) ● Thoracic cage (Sternum, true ribs, false ribs, clavicle, scapula) ● Arms (humerus, radius, ulna) ● Hand (trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate, scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform) ● Hips and leg (Coxal bones, femur, tibia, fibula) ● Foot (calcaneus, talus, navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform, medial cuneiform, metatarsals, phalanges) III. Muscle System Define the following muscle system terms and/or give their function 46. Creatine Phosphate (CrP): A compound that can pair with ADP to change it into ATP by giving up its phosphate 47. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: The specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells that stores, releases, and retrieves calcium ions 48. Sarcolemma: The plasma membrane of muscle fibers 49. Sarcoplasm: The cytoplasm of muscle fibers 50. Myofibrils: Protein organization that runs the length of the cell 51. Sarcomere: A section of a myofibril; the smallest functional unit of a skeletal muscle fiber 52. Cisternae: Modified sarcoplasmic reticulum that wrap around each sarcomere’s surface 53. Myosin: Thick filament involved in contraction. Attached to M line and reaches towards Z line 54. Actin: Thin filament involved in construction. Attached to Z line and reaches towards M line 55. Troponin and tropomyosin: The two proteins that wrap around actin and cover the active sites 56. Neuromuscular junction: The area of connection between a nerve and a muscle cell 57. Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter that allows for a muscle to contract 58. Acetylcholinesterase: An enzyme that specifically breaks down acetylcholine to stop muscle contraction 59. Metabolism: A sum of events which are carried out in the human body to create energy and other substances necessary for its activities 60. Catabolism: A process during which organic matter is broken down and the energy is simultaneously released 61. Anabolism: An energy-consuming process during which substances are created (energy reserves) Label the following parts of the sarcomere A. Actin B. Z disc C. Sarcomere D. H zone E. Myosin F. I band G. A band H. M line 62. Explain how the sodium potassium pump works Na ⁺ channels open and Na ⁺ enters cell -> Na ⁺ channels shut -> K ⁺ channels open and K ⁺ leave the cell -> K ⁺ channels shut. 3 sodium ions move OUT for each 2 potassium ions that move IN. This helps regulate depolarization and polarization *POTENTIAL ESSAY QUESTION* : Explain the process of contraction in a muscle cell. Be sure to use the terms: sarcomere, cisternae, calcium ions, crossbridges, myosin, actin, active sites, troponin and tropomyosin, action potential. *POTENTIAL ESSAY/DRAWING QUESTION* : Explain how the neuromuscular junction allows control of contractions. Be sure to include the terms: acetylcholine (ACh), acetylcholinesterase (AChe), sodium channel(s), action potential, synaptic vesicle(s) Match the clinical condition to its description IV. Nervous System Complete the following chart Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Contains: Brain, spinal cord Contains: Cranial nerves (12 pair), spinal nerves (31 pair) 63. __F__ Botulism A. A genetic disorder in the gene responsible for healthy muscle structure and function. Causes an interference in the production of healthy proteins, causes the patient to quickly lose muscle mass 64. __B__ Fibrosis B. Normal muscle tissue replaced with fibrous tissue, causing a buildup of scar tissue 65. __I__ Rhabdomyolysis C. An autoimmune disorder where the immune system damages nerves related to muscle communication. The antibodies bind to receptors and block the acetylcholine receptors. Causes loss of control of the skeletal muscles. 66. __L__ ALS D. Chronic, severe, widespread pain throughout the body caused by physical or emotional stress. More common in women than men 67. __C__ Myasthenia Gravis E. An organ or tissue that pushes through a weak part of the muscle, treatable through surgery 68. __A_ Muscular Dystrophy F. A bacterial disease often obtained from food that has not been preserved or stored properly. The toxin causes the neuromuscular junction to stop releasing ACh, meaning the muscle cannot contract 69. __G__ Polio G. A viral disease that results in symmetrical paralysis with muscle atrophy and weakness in the lower limbs 70. __J__ Tetanus H. An autoimmune disorder that causes the immune system to attack healthy myelin, leaving numerous scars and lesions on the white matter in the brain and spinal cord. Causes blurred/double vision, difficulty walking/balancing, etc. 71. __D__ Fibromyalgia I. An effect of high intensity exercise, heat exposure, some medicines, and illegal drugs that causes the muscle cells to break down and die. Causes severe muscle weakness, vomiting, confusion, etc. 72. __K__ Tendinitis J. A bacterial disease often obtained through burns, deep cuts, and other open wounds. The bacteria blocks nerve signals from being sent from the spinal cord, causing muscle spasms. 73. __E__ Hernia K. General inflammation, swelling, or irritation of a tendon 74. __H__ Multiple Sclerosis L. A disease that causes the motor neurons to deplete over time, causing the muscle itself to become weaker to the point where it can no longer function, leaving the patient ultimately paralyzed 75. __M__ Myotonia M. Abnormal activity in the ion channels that causes the muscle to have difficulty relaxing after a contraction. Can cause choking, gagging, acid reflux, etc. Circle the correct term to complete the following sentences 76. The afferent/sensory nerves move information ( TOWARDS / AWAY FROM ) the CNS 77. The efferent/motor nerves move information ( TOWARDS / AWAY FROM ) the CNS 78. The somatic nervous system ( IS / IS NOT ) under conscious control 79. The autonomic nervous system ( IS / IS NOT ) under conscious control In the space below, draw a picture of a neuron. Include the following terms: dendrite, axon, cell body, axon hillock, nucleus, axon terminals, nodes of ranvier, schwann cell Define the following nervous system terms and/or give their function 80. Astrocyte: The largest and most numerous neuroglia; secret chemicals vital to maintenance of the blood-brain barrier 81. Oligodendrocyte: Provide myelin for neurons in the CNS 82. Microglia: The smallest and least numerous neuroglia. Perform protective functions (WBCs of the nervous system) 83. Satellite cells: Cells that maintain a stable environment around a neuron and regulate ion and nutrient supply 84. Ependymal cells: Line the central canal of the spinal cord and ventricles. Create and distribute cerebrospinal fluid 85. Schwann cells: Provide myelin for neurons in the PNS 86. Myelin: Material that serves as electrical insulation and increases the speed at which an action potential travels along an axon 87. Nodes of ranvier: Small gaps between myelinated regions of an axon. Regenerate and speed up action potential 88. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): Clear, watery fluid in the nervous system that functions as cushioning, and nutrient and waste transport in the nervous system 89. White matter: Areas containing myelinated axons 90. Grey matter: Areas containing UNmyelinated axons; neuron cell bodies 91. Thalamus: Processes and relays information. Sensory impulses to the cerebral cortex. Involuntary motor responses outward 92. Pineal Gland: Endocrine gland that produces melatonin. Involved in regulating timing patterns of activities such as night-day cycles 93. Hypothalamus: Controls homeostasis functions (digestions, respiration, blood pressure, body temperature, wake and sleep patterns, food and water intake, body weight). Sets and controls emotional states and desires 94. Pituitary Gland: Endocrine gland, influence greatly by hypothalamus chemicals For each of the brain regions, add the division it belongs to and/or a description of it/functions Division of the brain Description Cerebrum Forebrain Largest part of the brain, contains cortices and association areas for senses and boyd functions Diencephalon Forebrain Contains thalamus, pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland Midbrain Midbrain Reflexes for eye movements and head turns Medulla Oblongata Hindbrain Contains cardiac center, respiratory center and vasomotor center Pons Hindbrain Links medulla oblongata to brain regions above; connects motor pathways between cerebrum and cerebellum Cerebellum Hindbrain Directs postural reflexes and coordinates conscious and unconscious motor responses. Gets visual, auditory, balance, and proprioceptive input Match the following cerebrum parts to their functions 95. __ I ___ Hippocampus A. Impulses from association area to cause motor responses 96. __ A ___ Primary motor cortex B. Receives sensations from skin receptors and pinoints location of sensations 97. __ E ___ Premotor cortex C. Makes ‘sense’ of inputs like understanding speech 98. __ B ___ Primary sensory cortex D. Interprets and processes visual information 99. __ H _ Somatic sensory association area E. Causes coordinated learned skeletal muscle activities 100. __ D ___ Visual association area F. Ear sensations, interprets nature of sounds 101. __ F ___ Auditory cortex G. Regulates breathing and vocalization for normal speech 102. __ J ___ Auditory association area H. Interpret sensations and relates to experiences (impulses from thalamus and primary sensory cortex) 103. __ K ___ Olfactory cortex I. Important in the formation of long term memories 104. __ G ___ Broca’s area J. Recognizes sounds and translates speech sounds into thought 105. __ C ___ Wernicke’s area K. Interprets smells *POTENTIAL ESSAY QUESTION* : Explain the depolarization/repolarization of a neuron as an action potential passes through Complete the chart for the cranial nerves Number Name Function(s) 1 Olfactory Smell 2 Optic Sight 3 Oculomotor Moves 4 eye muscles, the lens of the eye, and pupil of the eye 4 Trochlear Moves one eye muscle 5 Trigeminal Chewing, face sensations, forehead and jaw movement 6 Abducens Moves the 6th eye muscle 7 Facial Facial expression muscles, taste for front ⅔ of tongue 8 Vestibulocochlear (Acoustic) Hearing and balance 9 Glossopharyngeal Taste back ⅓ of tongue, pharynx swallowing 10 Vagus Heart rate, lungs and digestive system 11 Accessory (spinal accessory) Moves shoulders by trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles, speech 12 Hypoglossal Move tongue, receptors for blood pressure, pH, O ₂ , and CO ₂ Match the clinical condition to its description 106. __I__ Neurofibromatosis A. A disorder where the myelin sheaths on axons are degraded, causing memory loss, difficulty with tasks, personality and behavior changes, etc 107. __B__ Bell’s Palsy B. The facial nerves have become inflamed and causes messages to be unable to reach the brain properly 108. __E__ Epilepsy C. A disorder that affects the cerebellum, causing the brain to be unable to properly transmit signals between areas 109. __F__ Quadriplegia D. An overarching term/collection of symptoms related to cognitive decline and memory loss 110. __J__ Paraplegia E. A disorder characterized by a person having multiple seizures 111. __L__ Parkinson’s disease F. Paralysis of the all four limbs/below the neck, caused by an upper spinal cord injury 112. __C__ Cerebral Palsy G. A viral infection where the varicella-zoster virus flares up and causes damage to nerve fibers 113. __A__ Alzheimer’s H. A disease that causes nerves to gradually break down specifically in parts of the brain that control voluntary movements 114. __D__ Dementia I. A disease that causes the nerve cells to form and grow improperly, can cause a multitude of learning and physical abnormalities 115. __K__ Hansen’s disease J. Paralysis of the legs/lower body, caused by a lower spinal cord injury 116. __H__ Huntington’s disease K. A bacterial infection that causes deterioration of body tissues, including damage to sensory nerves, affection pain sensations 117. __G__ Shingles L. A disease that causes neurons to weaken, become damaged, and die. Often characterized by tremors in hands, arms, legs, jaw, or head You got this! <3 <3 <3