Copyright Law C A S E S A N D M AT E R I A L S v. 1.0 Jeanne C. Fromer Christopher Jon Sprigman i Copyright Law Cases and Materials v1.0 Jeanne C. Fromer Professor, New York University School of Law, and Co - Director, Engelberg Center on Innovation Law and Policy Christopher Jon Sprigman Professor, New York University School of Law, and Co - Director, Engelberg Center on Innovation Law and Policy ii T his book is dedicated to our families, and to our students We thank Barton Beebe for his guidance with regard to open - source casebooks, Christopher Buccafusco for his help ful comments on an initial draft of this book, Madhav Tanka for fantastic graphic and website design, and Rebecca Tushnet for collecting many of the images used in the book. Thanks to Stephen Gray, Tim Keegan, and Krista Staropoli for extraordinary researc h assistance. © 2019, Jeanne C. Fromer & Christopher Jon Sprigman This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution - NonCommercial - NoDerivatives 4.0 International License For a summary of that license, and a link to the license’s legal terms, please see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by - nc - nd/4.0/ Pl ease note that although we have restricted the creati on of derivative works, we may be willing to approve particular derivatives that you may wish to create. If you wish to create a derivative, please contact us (jeanne.fromer@nyu.edu; christopher.sprigman@nyu.edu) . Thank you. How we’ve edited the cases that appear in this book: We have numbered paragraphs to ease reference and class discussion. We have also used curly brackets ({ ... }) to indicate our own editorial insertions in judicial decisions , as opposed to instances in whi ch we make minor edits or courts themselves edit material that they are quoting, which we indicate with the use of standard brackets ( [ ... ]). iii Preface ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. ii I. Introduction ................................ ................................ .............. 1 A. The Categories of Copyrightable Subject Matter ................................ ................. 2 B. The Sources of Copyright Law ................................ ................................ ............ 2 1. The U.S. Constitution ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 2 2. The Copyright Act of 1976 ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 3 3. The Decisions of Federal Courts ................................ ................................ ......................... 5 4. Copyright Office Regulations and Guidance ................................ ................................ ...... 4 5. The International Copyright Regime ................................ ................................ .................. 5 C. The History of U.S. Copyright Law ................................ ................................ ..... 6 D. Why Do We Have Copyright? ................................ ................................ ............. 9 1. The Utilitarian Account ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 9 2. Rights - Based Theories ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 1 3 II. The Subject Matter of Copyright Protection ............................... 17 A. Fixation ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 1 7 Williams Electronics, Inc. v. Artic International, Inc. ................................ ................................ ............... 2 0 Cartoon Network LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc. ................................ ................................ ............................ 2 2 B. Originality ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 2 7 1. Classic Cases ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 27 Burrow - Giles Lithographic Co. v. Napoleon Sarony ................................ ................................ ............... 2 7 George Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co. ................................ ................................ ................ 29 Alfred Bell & Co. v. Catalda Fine Arts ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 3 1 2. Co ntemporary Cases ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 3 3 Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co. ................................ ................................ .......... 3 3 Meshwerks, Inc. v. Toyota Motor Sales U.S.A., Inc. ................................ ................................ ............... 3 6 Chapman Kelley v. Chicago Park District ................................ ................................ ............................... 4 2 C. Derivative Works and Compilations ................................ ................................ .. 4 5 1. Derivative Works ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 4 5 L. Batlin & Son, Inc. v. Jeffrey Snyder ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 4 6 Daniel Schrock v. Learning Curve International, Inc. ................................ ................................ .............. 5 0 2. Compilations ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 5 4 Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co. ................................ ................................ .......... 5 4 D. Idea - Expression Distinction ................................ ................................ ............. 6 0 1. Process - Expression Distinction ................................ ................................ ........................ 6 0 W.C.M. Baker v. Charles Selden ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 6 0 2. Idea - Expression Distinction ................................ ................................ ............................. 6 5 Lars Erickson v. Michael John Blake ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 6 5 3. Historical Fact - Expression Distinction ................................ ................................ ............. 69 A.A. Hoehling v. Universal City Studios, Inc. ................................ ................................ ......................... 69 E. Copyrightable Subject Matter ................................ ................................ .......... 7 5 1. Introduction to Categories ................................ ................................ ................................ 7 5 2. Exclusion of Government Works ................................ ................................ ....................... 7 7 3. Useful Articles ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 78 Mazer v. Stein ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 79 iv Star Athletica, LLC v. Varsity Brands, Inc. ................................ ................................ ............................. 8 3 4. Architectural Works ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 10 0 Thomas Shine v. David M. Childs ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 10 1 5. Computer Software ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 10 7 a. Understanding Computer Software ................................ ................................ ............................ 10 7 b. Network Effects in Software ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 11 0 c. Copyright Protection for Software ................................ ................................ .............................. 11 0 i. Idea - Expression Distinction ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 11 2 Computer Associates International v. Altai, Inc. ................................ ................................ .................. 11 3 ii. Compatibility ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 12 4 Lotus Development Corp. v. Borland International, Inc. ................................ ................................ ...... 12 4 Oracle America, Inc. v. Google Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 13 3 III. Authorship and Ownership ................................ .................... 145 A. The Definition of Authorship ................................ ................................ .......... 145 Alexander Lindsay v. The Wrecked and Abandoned Vessel R.M.S. Titanic ................................ ........... 145 Cindy Lee Garcia v. Google, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 147 B. Authorship and Ownership in Joint Works ................................ ....................... 152 Karen Erickson v. Trinity Theatre, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ 153 Jefri Aalmuhammed v. Spike Lee ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 155 C. Authorship and Ownership in Works Made for Hire ................................ ......... 159 1. Works of Employees Operating Within the Scope of Employment ................................ .... 160 Community for Creative Non - Violence v. James Earl Reid ................................ ................................ ... 160 Avtec Systems, Inc. v. Jeffrey G. Peiffer ................................ ................................ .............................. 166 2. Specially Ordered or Commissioned Works ................................ ................................ ....... 169 IV. Copyright Formalities and Duration ................................ ....... 171 A. Formalities ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 171 1. Publication ................................ ................................ ................................ ..................... 172 Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................ 17 3 2. Copyright Notice ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 178 3. Registration ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 180 4. Deposit ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 182 5. Other Formalities ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 183 a. Recordation of Transfer ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 183 b. Domestic Manufacture ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 184 6. Restoration ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 184 B. Duration ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 185 1. Duration Rules ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 185 2. Duration Policy ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 189 Eric Eldred v. John D. Ashcroft ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 191 Lawrence Golan v. Eric H. Holder, Jr. ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 20 2 C. Renewals ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 21 0 James Stewart v. Sheldon Abend ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 21 1 D. Terminations of Transfer ................................ ................................ ................ 21 7 v V. Copyright’s Exclusive Rights ................................ .................. 221 A. Infringement Elements ................................ ................................ .................. 222 B. Reproduction Right ................................ ................................ ........................ 22 2 1. Copying in Fact ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 22 3 Three Boys Music Corporation v. Michael Bolton ................................ ................................ ................ 22 3 R onald H. Selle v. Barry Gibb ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 22 6 Ty, Inc. v. GMA Accessories, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 2 29 2. Copying in Law ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 23 2 a. De Minimis Copy ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 232 Itoffee R. Gayle v. Home Box Office, Inc. ................................ ................................ ............................. 233 b. Substantially Similar Copy ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 237 i. Classic Cases ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 23 7 Anne Nichols v. Universal Pictures Corporation ................................ ................................ ................... 23 7 Ira Arnstein v. Cole Porter ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 24 0 ii. Contemporary Cases ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 24 5 Saul Steinberg v. Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. ................................ ................................ ............ 24 5 Judi Boisson v. Banian, Ltd. ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 25 2 Sid & Marty Krofft Television Productions, Inc. v. Mcdonald’s Corporation ................................ .......... 25 6 Wanda A. Cavalier v. Random House, Inc. ................................ ................................ ........................... 2 59 Jacobus Rentmeester v. Nike, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 26 6 c. Exact Copy ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... 276 C. Right to Prepare Derivative Works ................................ ................................ 27 8 Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc. v. RDR Books ................................ ................................ ................... 28 1 Mirage Editions, Inc. v. Albuquerque A.R.T. Co. ................................ ................................ .................. 29 1 Annie Lee v. A.R.T. Company ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 29 3 Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc. ................................ ................................ .......... 29 5 D. Fictional Characters and the Rights of Reproduction and to Prepare Derivative Works ................................ ................................ ........................... 29 8 Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc. v. Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc. ................................ ...................... 299 DC Comics v. Mark Towle ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 30 1 E. Moral Rights ................................ ................................ ................................ 30 8 Terry Gilliam v. American Broadcasting Companies, Inc. ................................ ................................ ..... 3 09 Dastar Corp. v. Twentieth Century Fox Corp. ................................ ................................ ...................... 31 5 Jonathan Cohen v. G&M Realty L.P. ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 32 2 F. Distribution (and Importation) Rights ................................ .............................. 33 3 Bobbs - Merrill Company v. Isidor Straus ................................ ................................ .............................. 33 4 Capitol Records, LLC v. ReDigi Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 33 6 Supap Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ................................ ................................ ......................... 34 3 G. The Rights of Public Performance and Public Display ................................ ....... 35 2 Columbia Pictures Industries, Inc. v. Redd Horne, Inc. ................................ ................................ ......... 35 3 Cartoon Network LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc. ................................ ................................ .......................... 35 7 American Broadcasting Companies, Inc. v. Aereo, Inc. ................................ ................................ ........ 36 1 Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 37 1 H. Music Industry ................................ ................................ .............................. 37 8 VMG Salsoul, LLC v. Madonna Louise Ciccone ................................ ................................ .................... 38 8 VI. Fair Use ................................ ................................ ............... 403 A. Fair Use in Traditional Media ................................ ................................ ......... 4 04 Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enterprises ................................ ................................ ........... 405 Luther R. Campbell v. Acuff – Rose Music, Inc. ................................ ................................ ...................... 413 vi Bill Graham Archives v. Dorling Kindersley Limited ................................ ................................ ............. 423 Andrea Blanch v. Jeff Koons ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 432 B. Market Failure and Market Effect ................................ ................................ ... 442 Sony Corporation of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc. ................................ ................................ 443 American Geophysical Union v. Texaco Inc. ................................ ................................ ........................ 452 C. Effect of § 107 Preamble on Fair - Use Analysis ................................ ................. 460 Sixto Núñez v. Caribbean International News Corp. ................................ ................................ ............ 461 Cambridge University Press v. Carl V. Patton ................................ ................................ ...................... 466 D. Fair Us e in Software and Technology ................................ ............................. 476 Sega Enterprises Ltd. v. Accolade, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ 476 Oracle America, Inc., v. Google LLC ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 483 Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 490 The Authors Guild v. Google, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 492 VII. Direct and Seconda ry Liabil ity ................................ .............. 507 A. Volition as an Element of Direct Liab ility ................................ ......................... 507 Religious Technology Center v. Netcom On - Line Communication Services, Inc. ................................ .. 50 7 Cartoon Network LP v. CSC Holdings, Inc. ................................ ................................ .......................... 510 B. Secondary Liability ................................ ................................ ........................ 513 Fonovisa, Inc. v. Cherry Auction, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 514 Perfect 10, Inc. v. Amazon .com, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ ... 51 7 Perfect 10, Inc. v. Visa International Service, Association ................................ ................................ .... 52 1 C. Liability of Online Service Providers, and Section 512 Safe Harbors .................. 52 8 Viacom International, Inc. v. YouTube, Inc. ................................ ................................ ......................... 53 1 Mavrix Photographs, LLC v. LiveJournal, Inc. ................................ ................................ ...................... 54 1 Steph anie Lenz v. Universal Music Corp. ................................ ................................ ............................. 54 6 D. Liability of Device Manufacturers ................................ ................................ .... 55 4 Sony Corporation of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc. ................................ ................................ 55 4 A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 55 8 Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer Studios Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. ................................ ................................ .......... 56 2 VIII. Copyright Litigation and Remedies ................................ ...... 577 A. Subject Matter Jurisdiction ................................ ................................ ............. 577 B. Statute of Limitations ................................ ................................ ................... 578 C. Standing ................................ ................................ ................................ ...... 579 D. Judicial Deference to Copyright Office ................................ ........................... 581 Capitol Records, LLC v. Vimeo, LLC ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 582 E. Remedies ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 586 1. Injunctive Relief ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 587 Christopher Phelps & Associates, LLC v. R. Wayne Galloway ................................ ............................... 588 2. Actual Damages ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 593 Frederick E. Bouchat v. Baltimore Ravens Football Club ................................ ................................ ...... 594 Frank Music Corp. v. Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer Inc. ................................ ................................ ................. 599 3. Statutory Damages ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 604 Capitol Records, Inc. v. Jammie Thomas - Rasset ................................ ................................ .................. 605 4. Costs and Attorney’s Fees ................................ ................................ .............................. 608 F. Criminal Copyright Law ................................ ................................ ................. 609 United States of America v. Julius Chow Lieh Liu ................................ ................................ ................ 610 vii IX. Technological Protections for Copyrighted Works ................... 615 A. Early History of Technological Protection Measures ................................ ........ 615 B. The Audio Home Recording Act ................................ ................................ ..... 615 C. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act ................................ ............................. 616 1. Section 1201 ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 617 2. Section 1201 Triennial Review ................................ ................................ ............................ 617 Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Reimerdes ................................ ................................ ............................. 618 3. Second - Generation DMCA Disputes ................................ ................................ .................. 630 Chamberlain Group, Inc. v. Skylink Technologies, Inc. ................................ ................................ ......... 630 Lexmark International, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc. ................................ ........................... 636 X. Copyright’s Relationship to Contract and Other State Laws ...... 643 A. Forming and Interpreting Contracts in Copyright ................................ ............ 643 Asset Marketing Systems, Inc. v. Kevin Gagnon ................................ ................................ .................. 644 Margret Rey v. Richard G.D. Lafferty ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 6 49 B. Modifying Copyright Law by Contract ................................ ............................ 65 4 Timothy S. Vernor v. Autodesk, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 655 Great Minds v. FedEx Office & Print Services, Inc. ................................ ................................ ............... 66 1 C. Copyright Misuse ................................ ................................ .......................... 66 4 Video Pipeline, Inc. v. Buena Vista Home Entertainment, Inc. ................................ ............................. 66 5 Omega S.A. v. Costco Wholesale Corp. ................................ ................................ ............................... 66 8 D. Preemption ................................ ................................ ................................ .. 67 5 Bowers v. Baystate Technologies, Inc. ................................ ................................ ................................ 67 8 International News Service v. Associated Press ................................ ................................ ................... 68 3 viii 1 I Introduction Some law students come to the subject of copyright law with at least a rough working understanding of what copyright is, and what it does (or is theoretically supposed to do). But for many others , copyright has been, and is at the moment, a subject that they ’ve perhaps hea rd about but haven’t explored too deeply. Whatever level of knowledge you have about copyright at the moment, by the end of this book you will gain a firm grounding in the fundament al s of U.S. copyright law. L et’s now begin at the beginning, with a broad statement of what copyright is. We will inquire deeply into each of the elements of that very general definition. But first a short summary of the contents of this casebook: In the remainder of this Chapter I , we’ll explore the sources of U.S. copyright l aw, the history of U.S. copyright, and the theoretical justifications that underlie copyright. In Chapter II we’ll examine the subject matter of copyright protection — that is , what sort of “works” copyright protects. We’ll also look at the threshold requir ements for copyright protection, principally the requirements of originality and fixation We’ll also explore a central limiting principle of copyright law, the idea - expression distinction , which excludes from the scope of copyright protection ideas, facts, procedures, processes, systems, methods of operation, concepts, principles, and discoveries. We’ll consider what those categories mean, and examine how the idea - expression distinction ha s been employed in cases involving a variety of subject matter. In Chapter III we’ll look at the meaning of authorship , and examine the rules governing copyright ownership Chapter IV covers copyright formalities , the duration of the term of copyright , an d the rules governing renewals and the termination of transfers of copyright Chapter V details each of the exclusive rights granted to copyright owners For all types of protected works , federal copyright law grants copyright owners the rights to (1) reproduce the work, (2) prepare derivative works based on the work, and (3) publicly distri bute copies of the work. Federal law also grants copyright owners of certain types of works the right(s) to publicly displ ay the work or to publicly perform it. For one type of protected work — sound recordings — the Act limits the right of public performance to performance by digital transmission. We explore these rights, including their scope and limitations. We also examine th e operation of these rights in a specific context, the music industry, that presents special complexities. Finally, in this chapter we examine the narrow scope of co - called “moral rights” in U.S. copyright law. In Chapter VI we’ll examine copyright’s fair use doctrine, tracing its historical development and modern applications. Chapter VII details the rules governing direct liability for copyright infringement, as well as those defining the various forms of secondary liability. This chapter also examines the application of secondary liability rules to online service providers and the manufacturers of devices that may be used to infringe. Copyright is a set of rights of limited scope and duration that are granted by law to the authors of original artistic and literary works, and that arise when such works are fixed in a tangible medium of expression. 2 Chapter VIII examines various topics related to copyright litigation and remedies , including subject matter jurisdiction , standing, the operation of copyright’s statute of limitations, and the role of the Copyright Office. Chapter VIII also details the remedies for copyright infringement, including both injunctions and various forms of monetary re lief The chapter closes with a brief review of criminal copyright law Chapter IX reviews the provisions of U.S. copyright law that prohibit the circumvention of technological protections for copyrighted works. F inally, Chapter X details the relationship of federal copyright law to contract and other forms of state law. The remainder of C hapter I presents first a short and general discussion of what sort of subject matter can be protected by copyright law, versus what patent and trademark law s protect. Pat ent and trademark laws are, along with copyright law , the principal branches of what’s come to be referred to as “intellectual property” law The chapter then summarizes the sources of copyright law, including a short account of the international framework of copyright treaties . Finally, the chapter review s the principal theoretical justifications for copyright law. A. The Categories of Copyrightable Subject Matter As we will discuss in considerably more detail in Chapter II , section 102 of the Copyright Act sets out the subject matter that copyright protects. The categories of copyrightable subject matter include: (1) literary works; (2) musical works, including any accompanying words; (3) dramatic works, including any accompanying music; (4) pantomimes and choreographic works; (5) pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works; (6) motion pictures and other audiovisual works; (7) sound recordings; and (8) architectural works. We will inquire into the particulars of each of these categories in Chapter II . Suffice now to say that copyright’s subject matter can be understood, as a shorthand, to include a range of artistic and literary works. We can distinguish copyright’s subject matter from that of patent, which protects scientific and technological inventions. We c an also distinguish copyright’s subject matter from that of trademark law, which protects words, logos, slogans, designs, domain names, and other symbols or “devices” that uniquely distinguish the goods or services of a firm. F or now, when you think of the subject matter of copyright, think of novels, poems, sculptures, photographs, plays, musical compositions, sound recordings, dances, movies, television shows, buildings, and computer software. Computer software? Yes, software is, somewhat counterintuitive ly, class ifi ed as a “literary work. ” More on that in Chapter II 3 B. The Sources of Copyright Law 1. The U.S. Constitution Copyright law is predominantly federal law. Article I, Section 8, Clause 8 of the U.S. Constitution authorizes Congress to create copyright and patent laws. That clause — which is variously referred to as the “Intellectual Pr operty Clause,” the “ Copyright and Patent Clause,” and the “Progress Clause” — provides that Congress shall have Power ... To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times, to Authors and Inventors, the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries. We will see as the course proceeds how federal courts have interpreted the meani ng of this provision and the scope of the power it grants Congress to make copyright law. NOTES 1. Which , if any, of the different names for Article I, Section 8, Clause 8 of the Constitution — the “Intellectual Property Clause,” the “Copyright and Patent Clause,” and the “Progress Clause” — best captures the content and purpose of the clause? What substantive or rhetorical arguments do each of the labels advance? 2. Notice the “parallel” structure of the Copyright and Patent Clause : the clause provides Congr ess with both copyright and patent lawmaking power, supplies terms that comprise the grant of power for each type of law, and combines th ose powers in a single clause. For copyright, the clause can be decomposed to read as follows: “Congress shall have Power .... To promote the Progress of Science ... by securing for limited Times, to Authors ... the exclusive Right to their ... Writings ....” For patent, the clause can be decomposed to read as follows: “Congress shall have Power ... To promote the Progress of ... useful Arts, by securing for limited Times, to ... Inventors, the exclusive Right to their ... Discoveries.” For a different, unitary , and thought - provoking re ading of this Clause, see Dotan Oliar, The (Constitutional) Convention on IP: A New Reading , 57 UCLA L. R EV 421 (2009). 3 . It may sound odd, to our modern ears, that the framers identified the purpose of copyright as promoting the progress of “ Science .” That word sounds more like the domain of patent — laboratories, test tubes, inventions — than copyright. But to the eighteenth - century mind, “science” was a broad term that stood for learning , and, as you will see, the English Statute of Anne, the first modern copyright law and a model for both the Copyright and Patent Clause and the first U.S copyright statute, was entitled “an Act for the encouragement of learning.” (Some may also find “useful Arts ” a confusing signifier for patents. By “arts,” the framers meant “artifices” — that is , machines — and not “ art ” in the sense that word usually takes in modern language ( that is , fine art) ) 4 2. The Copyright Act of 1976 The most important source of law for U.S. copyright is a federal statute, the Copyright Act of 1976, 90 Stat. 2541, which remains in force today with a series of amendments and additions The Copyrig ht Act is codified in Title 17 of the U.S. Code. Here is a URL for the Copyright Act as it appears on the website of the United States Copyright Office (we’ll discuss the Copyright Office separately shortly ): www.copyright.gov/title17/ 3. T he Decisions of Federal Courts Although copyright law is driven by a federal statute, federal court decisions are a very important source of copyright law. Sometimes court decisions are important because they are interpreting the meaning of a provision of the Copyright Act. F or example, federal courts applying the fair use provision set out in § 107 of the Copyright Act have interpret ed the mean ing of that p rovision, elaborating on the relatively spare guidance found in the statute, and have considered the application of the fair use standard in a wide range of settings Sometimes court decisions are important because they establish principles that are later incorporated into the federal copyright statutes. F or example, we will see that a limitation to copyright known as the “first sale doctrine” was first established by judicial decision, and only later incorporated into the Copyright Act ( specifically, in § 109). And then sometimes court decisions are important because they establish or articulate elements of copyright law about which the Copyright Act is silent. For example, we will review a number of co urt decisions that articulate standards for determini ng whether a work’s copyright has been infringed. The standard for determining copyright infring ement is a central element of any imaginable copyright system, and yet the Copyright Act says nothing about what the test for infringement is. As we shall see, there are a number of vital issues in copyright law on which the Copyright Act has little or nothing to say , and for which the decisions of federal courts are the sole source of law 4. Copyright Office Regulations and Guidance The Unite d States Copyright Office, created by an act of Congress in 1897, is a department within the legislative branch of the U.S. government. The Copyright Office is housed within the Library of Congress , and is headed by a Register of Copyrights, who reports to the Librarian of Congress. The primary function of the Copyright Office is su ggested by the title of the official who heads the Office ; it is to register claims of copy right, and to serve as a recor