Occupational Health Psychology Irvin Sam Schonfeld, PhD, MPH, is a professor of psychology at the City College of the City University of New York (CUNY), and is a professor of educational psychology and psychology at the Graduate Center of CUNY. He earned a BS at Brooklyn College, an MA at the New School for Social Research, a PhD at the CUNY Graduate Center, and a postdoctoral degree at Columbia University. He is on the editorial board of, and is a reviewer for, a number of journals. He has published in Journal of Occupational Health Psychology , Journal of Clinical Psychology , Archives of General Psychiatry , Developmental Psychology , British Journal of Developmental Psychology , Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , Clinical Psychology Review, Psychological Medicine, International Journal of Stress Management, Organizational Research Methods, Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology , Personality and Individual Differences, Pediatrics, Journal of Research in Science Teaching , and elsewhere. He is also the founding editor of the Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology . Among other subjects, Professor Schonfeld teaches courses on occupational health psychology, experimental psychology, and the epidemiology of mental disorders. When he is not working, he enjoys hiking and backpacking, and won an award from the Appalachian Mountain Club (AMC) for ascending the 48 highest peaks in New Hampshire. As an amateur photographer, he has had two of his photographs selected by the AMC for awards. Chu-Hsiang (Daisy) Chang, PhD, is an associate professor at the Department of Psychology of Michigan State University. She received her PhD in industrial and organizational psychology from the University of Akron. Her research interests focus on occupational health and safety, leadership, and motivation. Specifically, she studies issues related to occupational stress, workplace violence, and the intersection of employee motivation and organizational leadership particularly with reference to employee health and well-being. Her work has been published in Academy of Management Review, Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, Psychological Bulletin, and Work & Stress. She has served as an associate editor at Applied Psychology: An International Review and Journal of Organizational Behavior, and is currently serving as an associate editor at Journal of Applied Psychology. Occupational Health Psychology WORK, STRESS, AND HEALTH Irvin Sam Schonfeld, PhD, MPH Chu-Hsiang Chang, PhD Copyright © 2017 Springer Publishing Company, LLC All rights reserved. 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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Schonfeld, Irvin Sam, author. Title: Occupational health psychology / Irvin Sam Schonfeld, PhD, MPH, Chu-Hsiang Chang, PhD. Description: New York : Springer Publishing Company, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016041732 | ISBN 9780826199676 Subjects: LCSH: Psychology, Industrial. | Job stress. | Industrial safety. | Industrial hygiene. Classification: LCC HF5548.8 .S3526 2016 | DDC 158.7—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016041732 Special discounts on bulk quantities of our books are available to corporations, professional associations, pharmaceutical companies, health care organizations, and other qualifying groups. If you are interested in a custom book, including chapters from more than one of our titles, we can provide that service as well. For details, please contact: Special Sales Department, Springer Publishing Company, LLC 11 West 42nd Street, 15th Floor, New York, NY 10036-8002 Phone: 877-687-7476 or 212-431-4370; Fax: 212-941-7842 E-mail: sales@springerpub.com Printed in the United States of America by Gasch Printing. In memory of my parents, Ruth and George Schonfeld. —Irvin Sam Schonfeld Contents Acknowledgments From Irvin Sam Schonfeld Acknowledgments From Chu-Hsiang Chang Share Occupational Health Psychology: Work, Stress, and Health 1. A Brief History of Occupational Health Psychology Early Forerunners Engels and Marx Émile Durkheim Max Weber and the Iron Cage Taylor and Ford Frederick Winslow Taylor Henry Ford World War I and the Interwar Years Impact on Soldiers The Interwar Years Human Relations Unemployment From the World War II Era to the 1970s World War II Institute for Social Research Tavistock and Human Relations Changes in the British Mining Industry Hans Selye Stressful Life Events Stress Research in Sweden Developments in Sociology, Social Psychology, and Industrial Psychology Richard Lazarus Methodological Rigor in Research on Job Stress OSHA and NIOSH P–E Fit Burnout Decision Latitude and Job Demands The 1980s to the Present Two Groundbreaking Studies Occupational Health Psychology Work & Stress APA–NIOSH Conference Series Doctoral Programs in OHP University of Nottingham Journal of Occupational Health Psychology ICOH–WOPS European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology Society for Occupational Health Psychology Summary 2. Research Methods in Occupational Health Psychology Research Designs Experiment Quasi-Experiment Internal Validity of Experiments and Quasi-Experiments Cross-Sectional Study Case-Control Study Longitudinal Study Cohort Studies Meta-Analysis Two-Stage Meta-Analysis One-Stage Meta-Analysis Final Comment on Meta-Analyses Other Research Designs in OHP Diary Studies Natural Experiment Interrupted Time-Series Qualitative Research Methods Measurement Reliability Internal Consistency Reliability Alternate Forms and Test–Retest Reliability Interrater (Scorer) Reliability: Continuous Measures Interrater Reliability: Categorical Measurement Final Word on Reliability Validity Content Validity Criterion-Related Validity Construct Validity Research Ethics Summary 3. The Impact of Psychosocial Working Conditions on Mental Health Assessing Mental Health in OHP Research Psychological Distress and Depression Burnout The Impact of Job Loss on Mental Health Two Pathways for Research on Unemployment What the Research on Unemployment Has to Tell Us Job Loss and Suicide The Demand–Control(–Support) Model Social Support Becomes Part of the Model Measuring DCS Factors Methodological Concerns The Evidence Bearing on the Relation of the Demand–Control(– Support) Model to Depression and Distress The DCS Factors and Excessive Alcohol Consumption Workplace Support The Impact of DCS Factors The Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) Model and Conservation of Resources Model The Evidence Bearing on the JD–R Model The JD–R Model and Matching Summing Up of the JD–R Model The Effort–Reward Imbalance Model Other Psychosocial Factors Organizational Justice Job Insecurity Long Working Hours Night Work and Shift Work Stressful Occupational Events and Work-Related Social Stressors Coping Other Research Considerations Reverse Causality Controlling for Socioeconomic Status Nonwork Stressors Timing Waves of Data Collection Decisions About Study Populations Reliance on Self-Report Measures Summary 4. Epidemiology, Medical Disease, and OHP Cardiovascular Disease A Riddle Psychosocial Working Conditions Could Affect CVD Through Health Behaviors Cigarette Smoking Obesity and Weight Gain Leisure Time Physical Activity Summary Biological Links From Psychosocial Working Conditions to CVD Workplace Stressors and Human Biology Cortisol and Epinephrine Allostasis and Allostatic Load Dysregulation of the HPA Axis and Other Harmful Effects Summary Depression and CVD Burnout and CVD Research Linking “Stress at Work” and Demand–Control Variables to CVD Studies That Employed Imputation Strategies Linking DC Factors to CVD Studies That Involve DC Factors That Were Assessed by Worker Self-Report Focus on DC Factors in Women Two-Stage Meta-Analysis The DC and ERI Models Compared “Mega-Study” of DC Factors Summary of Studies Bearing on the DC and ERI Factors The Relation of Job Loss to CVD Mortality Job Insecurity and CVD Long Working Hours and CVD Bullying Work Schedules and CVD Socioeconomic Status and Health Summary of Research on the Relation of Psychosocial Workplace Factors to CVD Musculoskeletal Problems Psychosocial Working Conditions and Musculoskeletal Problems Evidence That Psychosocial Working Conditions Affect Musculoskeletal Problems Two Meta-Analyses and a Systematic Review Summary Other Health-Related Outcomes 5. Workplace Violence and Psychological Aggression Extent of Workplace Violence and Psychological Aggression Prevalence of Homicide in the Workplace Prevalence of Workplace Violence, Excluding Homicide Prevalence of Psychological Aggression in the Workplace Workplace Violence and Psychological Aggression Commonly Occur Risk Factors for Violence in the Workplace and Worker-on-Worker Psychological Aggression Risk Factors for Psychological Aggression by Workers Against Other Workers Focus on Three Occupational Groups Nurses Hospital Climate A Small Corps of Patients and the Context of Assaults Summary of the Nursing Findings Teachers What Qualitative Research Has to Say Official Data on Assault Data Obtained From the Teachers Themselves Summary of the Teacher Findings Bus Drivers Consequences of Violence Exposure at the Workplace Cross-Sectional Research on the Consequences of Exposure to Workplace Violence Case-Control Research on the Consequences of Exposure to Workplace Violence Longitudinal Research on the Consequences of Exposure to Workplace Violence Longer-Term Longitudinal Studies Shorter-Term Longitudinal Studies Summing up the Consequences of Violence Exposure Consequences of Workplace Psychological Aggression Longitudinal Research on the Consequences of Exposure to Workplace Psychological Aggression Longitudinal Studies on Distress and Depression With Longer Time Lags Longitudinal Studies on Distress and Depression With Shorter Time Lags Bidirectional Effects Outcomes Other Than Distress and Depression Coping Summary 6. Organizational Climate and Leadership Organizational Climate: A Brief History Levels of Analysis Dimensions of Organizational Climate Safety Climate Antecedents of Safety Climate Safety-Related Outcomes of Safety Climate Other Effects of Safety Climate Mistreatment Climate Psychosocial Safety Climate Other Climates Relevant to Occupational Health Psychology Organizational Leadership: A Brief History Contemporary Leadership Theories and Occupational Health Transformational Leadership Leader–Member Exchange Abusive Supervision Summary 7. OHP Research on Specific Occupations Teachers Mental Disorder, Suicide, and Physical Disorder Within-Occupation Research Summary Nurses Mental Disorder and Suicide Within-Occupation Research Summary Combat Soldiers Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Mental Disorder and Brain Injury Leadership Sexual Harassment Suicide Summary Postscript First Responders Police Officers Summary Firefighters Summary 9/11 9/11 First Responders Who Were Police Officers 9/11 First Responders Who Were Firefighters Children of 9/11 First Responders Summary Construction Workers Occupational Stress and Safety Occupational Health Issues Unique to Construction Workers Summary Agricultural Workers Occupational Stress Occupational Safety Occupational Health Issues Unique to Agricultural Workers Summary 8. Occupational Safety Risk Factors in the Physical Work Environment Occupational Health Psychology and Occupational Safety Individual Antecedents of Safety Performance and Workplace Accidents and Injuries Demographics Personality Ability Factors Motivation-Related Differences Situational Antecedents of Safety Performance and Workplace Accidents and Injuries Job Characteristics Shift Work Implications of Considering Individual and Situational Antecedents for Safety Summary 9. Work–Family Balance Negative Work–Family Interface: Work–Family Conflict Situational Antecedents of WFC Dispositional Antecedents of WFC Outcomes of WFC Experience Sampling and Longitudinal Research Cross-National Research Positive Work–Family Interface: Work–Family Enhancement (WFE) Situational Antecedents of WFE Dispositional Antecedents of WFE Outcomes of WFE Experience Sampling and Longitudinal Research Work–Family Balance Consideration of the Broader Context Summary 10. Interventions in Occupational Health Psychology Integrated Model for Intervention in OHP Primary Interventions to Improve Work–Life Balance Secondary Interventions to Improve Work–Life Balance Tertiary Interventions to Improve Work–Life Balance Primary Interventions to Improve Physical Health and Safety Secondary Interventions to Improve Physical Health and Safety Tertiary Interventions to Improve Physical Health and Safety Primary Interventions to Improve Psychological Health and Well- Being Secondary and Tertiary Interventions to Improve Psychological Health and Well-Being Summary 11. The Future of Occupational Health Psychology The Future of OHP, Chapter by Chapter Mental Health Money Personality and Social Factors Job Crafting Physical Health Intermediate Pathways to CVD Stroke Underrepresented Groups Workers Transitioning Into Retirement Aggression in the Workplace Work-Related Mistreatment via the Internet Organizational Climate and Leadership Industry-Specific Research Leadership Research on Specific Occupations Combat Soldiers Police Officers and Firefighters Correctional Officers The Self-Employed Teaming With Workers to Develop Research Ideas Safety Worker Empowerment and Safety Work–Family Balance Families Responsible for Other Kinds of Care The Self-Employed Physicians Interventions in the Workplace Learning From Failure Total Worker Health™ Final Thoughts Index Acknowledgments From Irvin Sam Schonfeld The decision to write a book about occupational health psychology has a history, and that history illuminates why the book was written. The story of the book begins several years ago when Nancy S. Hale, who became my editor at Springer, made a surprise visit to my office at City College. She asked me to write a book about occupational health psychology. I agreed to write the book because I have been conducting research in “occupational health psychology” (OHP) since before I knew the existence of such a term. I came to the subject matter of what would become OHP as a result of the convergence of a number of influences. One influence, naturally enough, was my own work experience. My first job was that of a math teacher in a dangerous urban public school. In that job, I had informally observed the corrosive effects of job stress, although at the time I had not imagined that one day I would be conducting research on job stress. The job stressors I observed were in the form of disrespectful behavior among students toward teachers, student-on-student violence, and student- on-teacher violence. I left teaching to pursue a doctorate in developmental psychology. I was particularly interested in cognitive development, and conducted research on the foundations of children’s cognitions about quantity. After earning a PhD, I failed to obtain the academic position I wanted, and took a job as the director of evaluation in the Office of Special Programs in a school district. 1 My job required me to evaluate grant-supported educational programs and, more importantly, to write grant applications to help support new district initiatives. The head of the office, the individual to whom I reported, was a man who was a very effective grant-writer—which meant that the superintendent would never fire him. He, unfortunately, was a screamer. With a ferocity I hadn’t seen outside of a schoolyard, he once berated a secretary; as a result, she broke down in tears in the middle of the office. I observed another woman, the school district’s administrator for math programs, someone whom I had personally tried to protect, begin to shake and stammer, and then break into tears in anticipation of a tongue-lashing from the office head. The head of the office had contempt for me because there I was, a new PhD, who had not one-tenth the grant-writing skills the office head had. In fact, I was more than a little confused about how to acquire those skills. Of course, screaming at people did not enhance skill acquisition. At the time, I shared with friends a comparison I made between my new job at the school district and a job that I had when I was in college. In college, I had a summer job in a South Brooklyn factory that manufactured ladies’ slippers. I was a tool and die operator. Although the factory floor was hot, dirty, and dangerous, I joked with my friends who knew how much I disliked my job at the school district that the factory job was better than what I had in the Office of Special Programs. Between my job as a math teacher and my job at the school district, I got to know job stress very well. In the middle of the school year, I expressed to the head of the office my dissatisfaction regarding how he treated the people who worked for him. My protest was useless. As the school year was ending, I was going to be released from my position. The district superintendent, who was perhaps feeling guilty about the awfulness of the Office of Special Programs, gave me an opportunity to teach math in his district. I rejected it and looked for another position. The second influence was another work experience. This experience told me that a person can love his or her job. I had applied for a position in the Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry at New York State Psychiatric Institute, which has long been the Department of Psychiatry for Columbia University. I was, however, on a New York State line—the importance of this fact will become evident a little later. I started as a data analyst who soon enough got an opportunity to coauthor papers. In my new job, I made a discovery that rivaled that of Molière’s Monsieur Jourdain. Monsieur Jourdain was shocked to learn that he was speaking in prose. I was almost equally surprised to learn that I was involved in research on the epidemiology of mental disorder. I loved the job. My colleagues and, especially, the head of the division, David Shaffer, were wonderful to work with. The third influence was an embittering experience. This influence motivated me to write a section of Chapter 3 devoted to the impact of unemployment. After a year and a half on the job, the budgetary landscape became clouded. In 1983, Mario Cuomo had been elected governor of New York. He sharply cut the state’s budget. Many state employees lost their jobs. Everybody on my budget line, the research associate line, was laid off. This event was doubly troubling to my wife and me because my wife was 4 months pregnant with our first child. There was also a special irony to this event. My wife, who worked for a labor union, worked together with her union colleagues to help Cuomo win the Democratic primary and the general election. Although the layoff hurt very much, David Shaffer supported me for a couple of months with grant money and pushed me to apply for a postdoc in epidemiology at Columbia’s School of Public Health (now known as Columbia’s Joseph L. Mailman School of Public Health). With David’s recommendation, I won a postdoctoral fellowship that enabled me to continue to support my family. The experience in the Psychiatric Epidemiology Training Program, my fourth influence, helped change the direction of my research interests away from children’s cognition and away from child and adolescent psychiatry, although I continued, out of personal loyalty, to help David whenever I could. The epidemiology program mentors, Bruce Dohrenwend and Bruce Link, were leaders in research on life stress. The graduate courses in epidemiology and biostatistics and the program’s highly stimulating weekly meetings immersed me in new content knowledge and new research strategies. The 2 years I spent in the Psychiatric Epidemiology Training Program formed a kind of chemical bond with my work history, triggering in me a realization that I want to say something important about work, stress, and health. When I got a job at City College, I immediately started to study job stress in teachers. When Nancy Hale arrived in my office at City College, I was ready to write this book. But I wasn’t ready to write the whole book. We agreed that