Essentials on Dark Mater Edited by Abraão Jessé Capistrano de Souza ESSENTIALS ON DARK MATTER Edited by Abraão Jessé Capistrano de Souza Essentials on Dark Matter http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72066 Edited by Abraão Jessé Capistrano de Souza Contributors Brian Albert Robson, Kevin Ludwick, Andrzej Radosz, Andy T. Augousti, Pawel Gusin, Abraao Jesse J.S. Capistrano © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 201 8 The rights of the editor(s) and the author(s) have been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights to the book as a whole are reserved by INTECHOPEN LIMITED. The book as a whole (compilation) cannot be reproduced, distributed or used for commercial or non-commercial purposes without INTECHOPEN LIMITED’s written permission. Enquiries concerning the use of the book should be directed to INTECHOPEN LIMITED rights and permissions department (permissions@intechopen.com). Violations are liable to prosecution under the governing Copyright Law. 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The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. First published in London, United Kingdom, 2018 by IntechOpen eBook (PDF) Published by IntechOpen, 2019 IntechOpen is the global imprint of INTECHOPEN LIMITED, registered in England and Wales, registration number: 11086078, The Shard, 25th floor, 32 London Bridge Street London, SE19SG – United Kingdom Printed in Croatia British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from orders@intechopen.com Essentials on Dark Matter Edited by Abraão Jessé Capistrano de Souza p. cm. Print ISBN 978-1-78923-680-4 Online ISBN 978-1-78923-681-1 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-1-83881-649-0 We are IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists, for scientists 3,700+ 115,000+ 119M+ Open access books available International authors and editors Downloads Our authors are among the 151 Top 1% 12.2% Countries delivered to most cited scientists Contributors from top 500 universities Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI) Interested in publishing with us? Contact book.department@intechopen.com Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected. For more information visit www.intechopen.com Meet the editor Professor Abraão Capistrano graduated with a Phys- ics degree awarded by the Federal University of Pará, Brazil, (2004), masters in Physics (2006), and doctorate in Theoretical Physics from Universidade de Brasília, Brazil (2009). His research is focused on problems in mathematical-physics, quantum fields, astrophysics, cos- mology, and gravitation. He also studies rocket science and robotics focused on undergraduate engineering projects as well as teaches physics and astronomy to a broader audience through institutional extension projects. He is currently a full professor at the Federal Universi- ty of Latin-American Integration and collaborator researcher at Casimiro Montenegro Filho Astronomy Center (Technological Park of Itaipu). Contents Section 1 Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Introductory Chapter: The Physics of Dark Sector 3 Abraão Jessé Capistrano de Souza Section 2 Historical Aspects on Dark Matter Phenomenology 7 Chapter 2 The Story of Dark Matter 9 Brian Albert Robson Section 3 Cosmology and Dark Matter 23 Chapter 3 Possible Couplings of Dark Matter 25 Kevin Ludwick Chapter 4 Black but Not Dark 43 Andrzej Radosz, Andy T. Augousti and Pawel Gusin Section 1 Introduction Chapter 1 Introductory Chapter: The Physics of Dark Sector Abraão Jessé Capistrano de Souza Additional information is available at the end of the chapter http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80234 1. On the physics of dark sector In the last two decades, researches in cosmology and astrophysics provided an important source of data about the gravitational and evolutionary structure of the universe, which stimulates a demand for gravitational theories beyond general relativity in the face of the new conjuncture of the problems of contemporary physics. The physics of dark sector has been one of the most intriguing problems of physics. Since the rise of dark matter problem in the very beginning of the twentieth century and the appearance of the dark energy in the end of 1990s, they launched a new scenario for contemporary physics and some examples of questions can be made such as: Have those problems a true substance of reality? Is there an underlying new physics that describes such issues? Is it possible to explain those problems without changing the ordinary physical theories? Do we need another particle theory? And the central point, what is gravity? Since the works of Einstein, our sense of gravity had been radically changed since it can be interpreted as a geometrical effect. Einstein’s new approach indicated that geometry plays a fundamental role in a physical process. More interestingly, one can state a more profound meaning on gravity as: gravity does not need matter to exist. In Einstein’s sense, gravity is also self-interactive, that is, Einstein’s field equations exist on vacuum that evinces the grandeur of a geometric approach on a physical theory. In other words, general relativity is the only physical theory that allows a nontrivial vacuum solution. It must be said that it is rather dif- ferent from Newton’s theory of gravitation that a vectoral field of force does exist to provide interaction between two separated masses. Nonetheless, the problem of searching physics for dark sector essentially involves finding eventually new prospects on the meaning of gravity, once dark matter problem and the dark energy are at the first instance effects of gravity. This book is devoted to discussing fundamental aspects of the dark matter problem. The mod - ern roots on the dark matter problem were basically launched in the 1930s, with Zwicky’s © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited. 4 Essentials on Dark Matter observations [1] on a notorious discrepancy of mass in coma cluster that presented 500 times of mass than expected using Newtonian theory (virial theorem). Curiously, this fact passed practically unnoticed in scientific community and it was taken seriously decades later with the observations of galaxies. Only in 1970s, Zwicky’s missing mass problem was reinforced by Vera Rubin [2 ] with observations in spiral galaxies showing a huge discrepancy of Newton’s law on that scale. Until now, the so-called dark matter problem is still one of the greatest chal - lenges of both observational and theoretical physics. According to recent observations on Planck collaboration [ 3 ], roughly 5% of the universe is known and the rest of it is made of dark components. The dark matter accounts for 26.8% and the dark energy, a sort of energy that may drive the universe to speed up with negative pressure, responds to 68.3% of the universe composition. Moreover, the gravitational field of dark matter cannot be produced by baryons-only by the analysis of the first peak in the power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation. The observations on optical X-ray and gravitational lensing [4] also suggest that the bullet cluster cannot be explained without dark matter. Since the mid-1980s, astrophysicists have been compiling evidence—such as cosmic micro - wave background observations, the supernova type Ia data and large-scale structure—that the late-time universe is accelerating. The simplest candidate to explain this acceleration, within the framework of general relativity (GR), is a positive cosmological constant (CC). Many theoretical physicists were reluctant to consider CC as an explanation for acceleration of the universe, since the natural predicted value for CC from particle physics is ρ Λ ~ 10 18 GeV 4 , which has an enormous discrepancy with the astronomical bound for CC, ρ Λ ~ 10 − 3 eV 4 , about 10 122 times smaller. The first evidence of a possible accelerated expansion of the universe was obtained through the Hubble Space Telescope of type Ia (SN Ia) supernova in 1998 [ 5, 6 ]. The data suggested the existence of some form of energy, or nonagglomerated matter, that should permeate most of the whole universe with negative pressure generating an accelerated expansion of the uni- verse, that is, roughly speaking, providing a repulsive gravitational effect within the scope of general relativity, known as dark energy, and this finding is further reinforced with the agreement of 250 other events in supernova [5, 6 ] in independent astronomical observations. One successful theoretical model for explanation of the accelerated expansion is to attribute the dark matter a role in the acceleration problem. The cosmological constant ( Λ ) plus cold dark matter (CDM) parametrization [ 7, 8 ], for short Λ CDM, aims at explaining both formation and growth of large structures in the universe as well as the accelerated expansion problem [9, 10]. One fundamental characteristic that favors the Λ CDM model concerns its applications to cosmological scale and provides a simulation of the growth of the larger structures of the universe consistent with the observations on large scale structure (LSS) surveys [11]. On the other hand, it lacks a more underlying explanation on the nature of the CC itself and dark matter, which leaves unsolved the question from the first principles. This book is divided into two sections. The chapters aim at discussing different aspects on the dark matter problem by some experts in the field. The first section is devoted to historical aspects of dark matter phenomenology. The author presents a critical review of the dark mat - ter problem. The subsequent chapters discuss technical scientific advances in the field with 5 Introductory Chapter: The Physics of Dark Sector http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.80234 a study on a mechanism of couplings of dark matter and dark energy. Moreover, a study of black hole physics is present with the research of interior solutions of Schwarzschild black hole, a discussion on black hole thermodynamics and its role in the dark sector. It has been a great opportunity to work again with InTech’s editorial team and such an honor to read all the proposed chapters. Author details Abraão Jessé Capistrano de Souza Address all correspondence to: capistranoaj@unb.br Federal University of Latin-American Integration, Casimiro Montenegro Filho Astronomy Center (Itaipu Technological Park), Foz do Iguassu, PR, Brazil References [1] Zwicky F. Die Rotverschiebung von extragalaktischen Nebeln. Helvetica Physica Acta. 1933; 6 :110 [2] Rubin VC, Kent Ford W Jr. Rotation of the Andromeda Nebula from a Spectroscopic Survey of Emission Regions . The Astrophysical Journal. 1970; 159 :379 [3] Ade PAR et al. Planck 2013 results. XVI. Cosmological parameters. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 2014; 571 :A16 [4] Dietrich JP et al. A filament of dark matter between two clusters of galaxies. Nature. 2012; 487 :202 [5] Perlmutter S et al. Measurements of Omega and Lambda from 42 High-Redshift Supernovae . The Astrophysical Journal. 1999; 517 :565 [6] Riess A et al. Observational Evidence from Supernovae for an Accelerating Universe and a Cosmological Constant . Astronomy Journal. 1998; 116 :1009 [7] Padmanabhan T. Cosmological constant-the weight of the vacuum. Physics Reports. 2003; 380 :235 [8] Peebles PJE, Ratra B. The cosmological constant and dark energy. Reviews of Modern Physics. 2003; 75 :559 [9] Spergel DN. The dark side of cosmology: Dark matter and dark energy. Science. 2015; 347 (6226):1100-1102 [10] Arun K, Gudennavar SB, Sivaram C. Dark matter, dark energy, and alternate models: A review . Advances in Space Research. 2007; 60 :166-186 [11] Springel V. The cosmological simulation code gadget-2. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 2005; 364 :1105 Section 2 Historical Aspects on Dark Matter Phenomenology Chapter 2 The Story of Dark Matter Brian Albert Robson Additional information is available at the end of the chapter http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.75662 Abstract Several astronomical observations concerning the structure of galaxies, the rotation of stars in spiral galaxies, the motions of galaxies within a cluster of galaxies, and so on, cannot be understood in terms of Newton ’ s universal law of gravitation and the visible atomic matter within the galactic systems. This chapter reviews the progress made over many decades in the understanding of these cosmological observations that indicate a serious breakdown of Newton ’ s universal law of gravitation unless there exists additional unseen matter, named “ dark matter. ” The only alternative to “ dark matter ” is to modify Newtonian gravity. The chapter presents a critical review of the two main approaches to providing the additional gravity required to understand the puzzling astronomical obser- vations: (1) the “ dark matter ” hypothesis providing additional unseen mass and (2) modification of Newton ’ s universal law of gravity such that there is a stronger gravita- tional field at larger distances. Both Milgrom ’ s modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) theory and Robson ’ s recent quantum theory of gravity provided by the generation model (GM) of particle physics are discussed. Keywords: gravity, dark matter, MOND theory, generation model 1. Introduction The notion of “ dark matter ” emerged from several astronomical observations concerning the structure of galaxies, the rotation of stars and neutral hydrogen gas in spiral galaxies, the motions of clusters of galaxies, and so on. These observations could not be described in terms of Newton ’ s universal law of gravitation and the visible ordinary atomic matter within the galactic systems. This chapter reviews the progress made over many decades in the under- standing of these cosmological observations that indicated a serious breakdown of Newton ’ s universal law of gravitation unless there existed additional unseen matter that was named “ dark matter. ” The only alternative to “ dark matter ” was to modify Newtonian gravity. © 2018 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. Distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial 4.0 License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits use, distribution and reproduction for non-commercial purposes, provided the original is properly cited. 10 Essentials on Dark Matter This chapter presents a critical review of the two main approaches to providing the additional gravity required to understand the puzzling astronomical observations: (1) the “ dark matter ” hypothesis providing additional unseen mass and (2) modification of Newton ’ s universal law of gravity such that there is a stronger gravitational field at larger distances. Both Milgrom ’ s modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) theory and Robson ’ s recent quantum theory of grav- ity provided by the generation model (GM) of particle physics are discussed. 2. The notion of dark matter The notion of “ dark matter ” emerged from observations of large astronomical objects such as galaxies and clusters of galaxies, which displayed gravitational effects that could not be accounted for by the visible matter: stars, gas, and so on, assuming the validity of Newton ’ s universal law of gravitation. It was concluded that such observations could only be described satisfactorily if there existed stronger gravitational fields than those provided by the visible matter and Newtonian gravity. Such gravitational fields required either more mass or an appropriate modification of New- ton ’ s universal law of gravitation. Early preliminary evidence for such a “ mass discrepancy ” was observed in 1933 by Zwicky [1] for the Coma cluster of galaxies. He estimated that the cluster contained considerably more “ dark matter ” than the visible galactic matter in order to account for the fast motions of the galaxies within the cluster and also to hold the cluster together. Additional preliminary evidence for the mass discrepancy was found by Babcock [2] in 1939 and Rubin and Ford [3] in 1970 by measuring the rotation curve of the Andromeda galaxy, the nearest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way. The rotation curve of a galaxy is the dependence of the orbital velocity of the visible matter in the galaxy on its radial distance from the center of the galaxy. However, neither Babcock nor Rubin and Ford attributed their observations of an increase in mass toward the edge of the galaxy to any missing mass. In 1970, Freeman [4] found rotation curves for several galaxies that disagreed with expectation based upon the assumption that the galaxies consisted of stars, gas, and nothing else. Freeman suggested that these galaxies, like the Coma cluster observed much earlier by Zwicky, contained considerably more invisible “ dark matter ” than the luminous matter. In 1973, Roberts and Rots [5], using 21-cm line data, obtained neutral hydrogen rotation curves of three nearby spiral galaxies. These rotation curves extended to considerably larger distances from the centers of the galaxies than the corresponding rotation curves for the stars. In each case, the complete rotation curve was essentially “ flat ” out to the edge of the 21-cm data. In 1974, Ostriker et al. [6] stated that the current observed rotation curves strongly indicated that the mass of a spiral galaxy increases approximately linearly with radius to about 1 Mpc so that the ratio of the total mass to the observed visible mass was large. They concluded that the rotation curves could most plausibly be understood if the spiral galaxy was embedded in a giant spherical halo of invisible “ dark matter. ”