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If you are not located in the United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook. Title: The Races of Man An Outline of Anthropology and Ethnography Author: Joseph Deniker Release Date: September 12, 2014 [EBook #46848] Language: English *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RACES OF MAN *** Produced by Adrian Mastronardi, Reiner Ruf and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) THE CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE SERIES. E DITED BY HAVELOCK ELLIS. THE RACES OF MAN. Naga of Manipur in gala costume, with caudiform appendage. ( Phot. lent by Miss Godden. ) THE RACES OF MAN: AN OUTLINE OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND ETHNOGRAPHY BY J. DENIKER, Sc.D. (P ARIS ), Chief Librarian of the Museum of Natural History, Paris; Honorary Fellow of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain; Corresponding Member of the Italian Anthropological, Netherland Geographical, and Moscow Natural Science Societies, etc. WITH 176 ILLUSTRATIONS AND 2 MAPS. LONDON WALTER SCOTT, LIMITED PATERNOSTER SQUARE 1900 PREFACE. My object in the present work has been to give in a condensed form the essential facts of the twin sciences of anthropology and ethnography. The very nature of such an undertaking condemns the author to be brief, and at the same time somewhat dogmatic; inevitable gaps occur, and numerous inequalities in the treatment. To obviate, partly at least, such defects, I have endeavoured not merely to present the actual facts of the subject, but also to summarise, with as much fidelity as possible, the explanations of these facts, in so far as such may be educed from theories among which there is often sufficient perplexity of choice. In many cases I have ventured, however, to give my personal opinion on different questions, as, for instance, on the signification of the laryngeal sacs among anthropoid apes, on many questions of anthropometry in general, on the classing of “states of civilisation,” on fixed and transportable habitations, on the classification of races, on the races of Europe, on the Palæ-American race, etc. My book is designed for all those who desire to obtain rapidly a general notion of ethnographic and anthropological sciences, or to understand the foundations of these sciences. Thus technical terms are explained and annotated in such a manner that they may be understood by all. Those who may wish for further details on special points will be able to take advantage of the numerous bibliographical notes, at the foot of the pages, in which I have sought to group according to plan the most important or accessible works. I believe that even professional anthropologists will be able to consult my work profitably. They will find condensed in it information which is scattered over a vast crowd of notes and memoirs in all languages. I trust also that they may appreciate the Appendices, as well as the lists in the text itself, in which are collected from the best sources some hundreds of figures relating to the chief dimensions of the human body. The illustrations which complete and elucidate the text have been selected with very great care. With two or three exceptions, the “types” of the different peoples are photographs of well-authenticated subjects, often such as have been observed and measured by competent authorities, or by myself. I attach too much importance to the systematic illustration of anthropological works not to fail to express here my sincere indebtedness to the institutions and individuals who have been good enough to lend me blocks and photographs. I have thus to thank the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, the Anthropological Society and the Anthropological School of Paris, the India Museum, the Museum of Natural History of Paris, the Smithsonian Institution of Washington, Dr. Beddoe, Prince Roland Bonaparte, M. Chantre, Drs. Collignon and Delisle, Herr Ehrenreich and his editors Fr. Vieweg & Sons, Professor Haddon, Dr. Lapicque, Mr. Otis Mason, Dr. Sören Hansen, MM. S. Sommier, P. and F. Sarasin and their editor Herr C. Kreidel of Wiesbaden, Dr. Ten Kate, Mr. Thurston, Miss Godden, Miss Werner, and Messrs. Harper & Bros. I desire also to thank in this place Dr. Collignon, Mr. Havelock Ellis, and M. Salomon Reinach, for the trouble they have taken in revising the proofs of certain parts of my work. J. DENIKER. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. PAGE E THNIC G ROUPS AND Z OOLOGICAL S PECIES 1 Difficulties in applying to Man the terms of zoological nomenclature— Criterion of species—Terms to give to the “Somatological Units” constituting the genus Homo —Monogenesis and Polygenesis—The “Ethnic Groups” are constituted by the different combinations of the “Somatological Units” or “Races”—Somatic characters and ethnic characters. CHAPTER I. S OMATIC C HARACTERS 12 D ISTINCTIVE C HARACTERS OF M AN AND A PES .—Monkeys and anthropoid apes—Erect attitude—Curvature of the spine—Brain—Skull—Teeth—Other characters—Differences less accentuated in the fœtus and the young than in the adult. D ISTINCTIVE M ORPHOLOGICAL C HARACTERS OF H UMAN R ACES .— Stature : Individual limits—Dwarfs and giants—Average stature of different populations—Influence of environment—Differences according to sex— Reconstitution from the long bones— Teguments : Skin—Hair of head and body—Four principal types—Microscopic structure—Correlation between the hair of the head and the pilosity of the body— Pigmentation : Colouring of the skin, the eyes, and the hair—Changes in the pigment. CHAPTER II. 1. M ORPHOLOGICAL C HARACTERS ( continued ) 53 Cranium or Skull : Cranial measurements—Orbits and orbital index—Nasal bone and nasal index—Prognathism— Head of the living subject : Cephalic index—Face—Eyes—Nose and nasal index in the living subject—Lips — Trunk and Limbs : The Skeleton—Pelvis and its indices—Shoulder blade —Thoracic limb—Abdominal limb— Proportions of the body in the living subject —Trunk and neck—Curve of the back—Steatopygy— Various Organs : Genital organs—Brain—Its weight—Convolutions—The neuron— Its importance from the psychical point of view. CHAPTER III. 2. P HYSIOLOGICAL C HARACTERS 105 Functions of nutrition and assimilation : Digestion, alimentation, growth, temperature of the body, etc.— Respiration and circulation : Pulse, composition of the blood, etc.—Special odour— Functions of communication : Expression of the emotions, acuteness of the senses, etc. — Functions of reproduction : Menstruation, menopause, increase in the number of conceptions according to season, etc.— Influence of environment : Acclimatation—Cosmopolitanism of the genus Homo and the races of mankind—Cross-breeding. 3. P SYCHOLOGICAL AND P ATHOLOGICAL C HARACTERS .—Difficulties of studying them—Immunities—Nervous diseases of uncivilised peoples. CHAPTER IV. E THNIC C HARACTERS 123 Various stages of social groups and essential characters of human societies: Progress.—Conditions of Progress: Innovating initiative, and tradition— Classification of “states of civilisation.” I.—L INGUISTIC C HARACTERS .— Methods of exchanging ideas within a short distance —Gesture and speech—Divisions of language according to structure —Jargons— Communications at a relatively remote distance : optic and acoustic signals— Transmission of ideas at any distance and time whatever —Handwriting—Mnemotechnic objects—Pictography—Ideography— Alphabets—Direction of the lines of handwriting. CHAPTER V. II. S OCIOLOGICAL C HARACTERS 144 1. M ATERIAL L IFE : Alimentation : Geophagy—Anthropophagy—Preparation of foods—Fire—Pottery—Grinding of corn—Stimulants and Narcotics — Habitation : Two primitive types of dwellings—Permanent dwelling (hut) —Removable dwelling (tent)—Difference of origin of the materials employed in the two types—Villages—Furniture—Heating and lighting — Clothing : Nakedness and Modesty—Ornament precedes dress—Head- dress—Ethnic mutilations—Tattooing—Girdle, necklace, and garland the origin of all dress—Manufacture of garments—Spinning and weaving — Means of Existence : tools of primitive industry—Hunting—Fishing— Agriculture—Domestication and rearing of animals. CHAPTER VI. II. S OCIOLOGICAL C HARACTERS ( continued ) 197 2. P SYCHIC L IFE : Games and Recreations —Their importance—Games of children and adults—Sports and public spectacles—Masks— Fine Arts — Graphic arts—Ornamentation—Drawing—Sculpture—Dancing—Its importance among uncultured peoples—Pantomime and dramatic art—V ocal and instrumental music—Instruments of music—Poetry— Religion — Animism—Its two elements: belief in the soul, and belief in spirits— Fetichism—Polytheism—Rites and ceremonies—Priesthood—International religions— Myths — Science —Art of counting—Geometry—Calculation of time—Clocks and calendars—Geography and cartography—Medicine and surgery. CHAPTER VII. S OCIOLOGICAL C HARACTERS ( continued ) 229 3. F AMILY L IFE. —Relations of the two sexes before marriage— Marriage and family —Theory of promiscuity—Group marriage—Exogamy and endogamy—Matriarchate—Degrees of relationship and filiation—Polyandry —Levirate—Polygamy and monogamy—Patriarchate—Rape and purchase of the bride—Duration of conjugal union— Children —Birth—Nurture— Name of the child and of adults—Initiation, circumcision, etc.— Old men and their fate — Funereal rites —Mourning. 4. S OCIAL L IFE. —( a ) Home life of a people — Economic organisation —The forms of property depend on production—Common property and family property—Village community—Individual property— Social organisation — Totemism—Clan rule—Family rule—Territorial rule—Caste and class rule —Democratic rule—Social morals—Right and justice—Taboo— Retaliation, vendetta, and ordeals—Secret societies—Extra legal judges— Formulæ of politeness—( b ) International life of peoples —Absence of sympathetic relations—Hostile relations— War —Arms of offence—Bow and arrows—Arms of defence—Neutral relations— Commerce —Money— Cowry—Transports and means of communication—Primitive vehicles— Navigation. CHAPTER VIII. C LASSIFICATION OF R ACES AND P EOPLES 280 Criticism of anthropological classification—Frequent confusion of the classing of races and of peoples —The determining of races can be based only on somatic characters —For the classing of peoples, on the contrary, it is necessary to take into account ethnic characters (linguistic and sociological), and above all geographical distribution — Classification of races proposed by the author —Succinct characterisation of the twenty-nine races which are therein mentioned— Classification of ethnic groups adopted in this work. CHAPTER IX. R ACES AND P EOPLES OF E UROPE 299 Problem of European ethnogeny—I. A NCIENT I NHABITANTS OF E UROPE — Prehistoric races —Quaternary period—Glacial and interglacial periods —Quaternary skulls—Spy and Chancelade races or types—Races of the neolithic period—Races of the age of metals— Aryan question —Position of the problem— Migration of European peoples in the historic period —II. E UROPEAN R ACES OF THE P RESENT D AY —Characteristics of the six principal races and the four secondary races—III. P RESENT P EOPLES OF E UROPE — A Aryan peoples : Latins, Germans, Slavs, Letto-Lithuanians, Celts, Illyro- Hellenes— B Anaryan peoples : Basques, Finns, etc.— C Caucasian peoples : Lesgians, Georgians, etc. CHAPTER X. R ACES AND P EOPLES OF A SIA 359 A NCIENT I NHABITANTS OF A SIA .—Prehistoric times— Pithecanthropus erectus (Dub.)—Ages of stone and metals.—P RESENT I NHABITANTS OF A SIA —Races of Asia—I. Peoples of Northern Asia —Yeniseian, Palæasiatic and Tunguse groups.—II. Peoples of Central Asia —Turkish, Mongolian, and Thibetan groups—Peoples of the south-west of Thibet and of South China (Lolo, Miao-tsé, Lu-tsé, etc.).—III. Peoples of Eastern Asia —Chinese, Coreans, and Japanese.—IV Peoples of Indo-China —Aborigines, Mois, Kuis, Siam, Naga, etc.—More recent mixed populations: Annamese, Cambodians, Thai, etc.—V Peoples of India —Castes—Dravidians and Kolarians—Indo-Aryans and unclassified populations—VI. Peoples of Anterior Asia —Iranians and Semites. CHAPTER XI. R ACES AND P EOPLES OF A FRICA 426 A NCIENT I NHABITANTS OF A FRICA .—Succession of races on the “dark continent”—P RESENT I NHABITANTS OF A FRICA — I. Arabo-Berber or Semito- Hamite Group : Populations of Mediterranean Africa and Egypt— II. Ethiopian or Kushito-Hamite Group : Bejas, Gallas, Abyssinians, etc.— III. Fulah-Zandeh Group : The Zandeh, Masai, Niam-Niam populations of the Ubangi-Shari, etc., Fulbé or Fulahs— IV. Nigritian Group : Nilotic Negroes or Negroes of eastern Sudan—Negroes of central Sudan—Negroes of western Sudan and the Senegal—Negroes of the coast or Guinean Negroes, Kru, Agni, Tshi, Vei, Yoruba, etc.- V. Negrillo Group : Differences of the Pygmies and the Bushmen— VI. Bantu Group : Western Bantus of French, German, Portuguese, and Belgian equatorial Africa—Eastern Bantus of German, English, and Portuguese equatorial Africa—Southern Bantus: Zulus, etc.— VII. Hottentot-Bushman Group : The Namans and the Sans— VIII. Populations of Madagascar : Hovas, Malagasi, Sakalavas. CHAPTER XII. R ACES AND P EOPLES OF O CEANIA 474 The Stone Age in Oceania— I. Australians : Uniformity of the Australian race —Language and manners and customs of the Australians—Extinct Tasmanians — II. Populations of the Asiatic or Malay Archipelago : Papuan and Negrito elements in the Archipelago—Indonesians and Malays of Sumatra, Borneo, Celebes, etc.— III. Melanesians : Papuans of New Guinea —Melanesians properly so called of the Salomon and Admiralty Islands, New Hebrides, New Caledonia, etc.— IV. Polynesians : Polynesians properly so called of Samoa, Tahiti, and Sandwich Islands, New Zealand, etc.— Micronesians of the Caroline and Marianne Islands, etc.—Peopling of the Pacific Islands and of the Indian Ocean. CHAPTER XIII. R ACES AND P EOPLES OF A MERICA 507 The four ethnic elements of the New World— Origin of the Americans —A NCIENT I NHABITANTS OF A MERICA —Problem of palæolithic man in the United States—Palæolithic man in Mexico and South America—Lagoa Santa race; Sambaquis and Paraderos—Problem of the Mound-Builders and Cliff- Dwellers—Ancient civilisation of Mexico and Peru— Present American Races — American languages. P EOPLES OF N ORTH A MERICA — I. Eskimo — II. Indians of Canada and United States : a. Arctic—Athapascan group; b. Antarctic—Algonquian-Iroquois, Chata-Muskhogi, and Siouan groups; c. Pacific—North-west Indians, Oregon-California and Pueblo groups— III. Indians of Mexico and Central America : a. Sonoran-Aztecs; b. Central Americans (Mayas, Isthmians, etc.) —Half-breeds in Mexico and the Antilles. P EOPLES OF S OUTH A MERICA — I. Andeans : Chibcha, Quechua, and other linguistic families; the Araucans— II. Amazonians : Carib, Arawak, Miranha, and Panos families; unclassed tribes— III. Indians of East Brazil and the Central Region : Ges linguistic family; unclassed tribes (Puri, Karaya, Bororo, etc.); Tupi-Guarani family— IV. South Argentine : Chaco and Pampas Indians, etc.; Patagonians, Fuegians. APPENDIX 577 INDEX OF AUTHORS 597 INDEX OF SUBJECTS 604 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE Naga of Manipur in gala costume Frontispiece 1. Skull of gorilla 16 2. Skull of man 17 3. Microscopic section of skin and of hair 34 4. Mohave Indians of Arizona 35 5, 6. Pure Veddah of Dangala Mountains of Ceylon 38 7. Toda woman (India) 38 8. Kurumba man of Nilgiri Hills 42 9. Agni Negro of Krinjabo, Western Africa 42 10. Dolichocephalic skull of an islander of Torres Straits 56 11. Brachycephalic skull of a Ladin of Pufels (Tyrol) 56 12, 13. Skull of ancient Egyptian exhumed at Thebes 60, 62 14, 15. Jenny, Australian woman of Queensland 65 16. Japanese officer (old style) 69 17. Two men, Nagas of Manipur 71 18. Eye of a young Kalmuk girl of Astrakhan 78 19. Welsh type of Montgomeryshire 78 20. Kalmuk of Astrakhan 81 21. Jew of Algiers 82 22. Persian Hadjemi 83 23. A, Skull with Inca bone; B, Malar bone divided in two; C, Superior part of femur, etc. 88 24. Hottentot woman of Griqualand 94 25. Brain with indication of the three “centres of projection” and the three “centres of association” 103 26. Dakota Indian gesture language 129 27. Writing by notches of the Laotians 134 28. Coloured prehistoric pebbles of the grotto of Mas-d’Azil (Ariège) 137 29. Journal of the voyage of an Eskimo of Alaska 137 30. Petition of Chippeway Indians to the President of the United States 140 31. Various signs of symbolic pictography 141 32. Paternoster in Mexican hieroglyphics 141 33. Ancient Chinese hieroglyphics 142 34. Method of fire-making by rubbing 149 35. Do. do. sawing 151 36. Do. do. twirling 151 37. Bark vessel, used by Iroquois Indians 154 38. Type of Iroquois earthen vessel 154 39. Making of pottery without wheel 155 40. Primitive harvest 155 41. Hemispherical hut in straw of Zulu-Kafirs 161 42. Hut and granary of the Ovampos (S. Africa) 163 43. Summer tent of Tunguse-Manegres 163 44. “Gher” or tent of the Kalmuks of Astrakhan 167 45. Hexagonal house of non-roving Altaians 167 46. Kraal, or Kafir village, with defensive enclosure 168 47. Zulu girl, with head-dress, necklace, belt, and chastity apron 170 48. Ufhtaradeka, typical Fuegian with mantle 173 49. Ainu woman, tattooed round the lips 174 50, 51. Foot of Chinese woman artificially deformed 175 52. Native of the Department of Haute-Garonne 177 53. Dancing costume of natives of Murray Islands 178 54. Method of making stone tools by percussion 184 55. Method of flaking stone by pressure 186 56. Knife of chipped flint of the Hupa Indians 187 57. Kalmuk turning lathe with alternating rotatory movement 188 58. Principle of tackle utilised by Eskimo, landing a walrus 190 59. Dance of Australians during the Corroboree 199 60. Anthropomorph ornamental design of the Papuans of New Guinea 201 61, 62. Zoomorph ornamental designs on a club and a spatula 202 63. Conventional representation of an alligator 204 64. Ornamental motive derived from the preceding design 204 65. Ornamental designs of the Karayas 204 66. Bushman painting, representing the battle going in favour of the Bechuana 206 67. Symbolic adzes of Mangaia Island 207 68. “Sansa” or “Zimba,” a musical box of the Negroes 211 69. “Marimba,” the Negro xylophone 212 70. Bushman playing on the “gora” 213 71. Detail of construction of the “gora” 214 72. Eskimo geographical map 226 73. Chipped flint dagger of the Californian Indians 256 74. Axe of the Banyai (Matabeleland) 259 75. Missile arms of the Australians 260 76. Throwing-stick of the Papuans of German New Guinea 261 77. Different methods of arrow release 264 78. Australian shield in wood 267 79. Indonesian shields 267 80. Shield of Zulu-Kafirs 267 81. Money of uncivilised peoples 273 82. Method of tree-climbing in India 275 83. Malayo-Polynesian canoe with outrigger 279 84. Chellean flint implement, Saint-Acheul (Somme) 302 85. Quaternary art (Magdalenian period) 306 86. Spy skull, first quaternary race 313 87. Chancelade skull, second quaternary race 313 88. Islander of Lewis (Hebrides) 319 89, 90. Norwegian of South Osterdalen 322 91. Young Sussex farmer 325 92. Englishwoman of Plymouth 329 93. Fisher people of Island of Aran (Ireland) 330 94. Young woman of Arles 331 95, 96. Pure type of Highlander (clan Chattan) 332, 333 97. Anglian type, common in north and north-east of England 336 98. Frenchman of Ouroux (Morvan) 337 99, 100. Dolichocephalic Frenchmen of Dordogne 337 101. Englishman (Gloucestershire) 340 102, 103. Russian carpenter, district of Pokrovsk 342, 343 104, 105. Russian woman, district of Veréïa 346, 347 106. Cheremiss of Ural Mountains 349 107, 108. Kundrof Tatar (Turkoman) of Astrakhan 352 109. Georgian Imer of Kutais 355 110, 111. Chechen of Daghestan 356, 357 112. Skull of the Pithecanthropus erectus (Dab.) 361 113. Calvaria of Pithecanthropus , seen from above 361 362 114. Polished stone axe found in Cambodia 363 115, 116. Tunguse hunter (Siberia) with ski and staff 367, 370 117. Ainu of Yezo (Japan) with crown of shavings 371 118. Educated Chinaman of Manchu origin 383 119. Leao-yu-chow, Chinese woman 385 120. Young Japanese women taking tea 388 121. Tong King artisan of Son-tai 389 122. Khamti of Lower Burma, Assam frontier 393 123. Black Sakai of Gunong-Inas (Perak, Malay Pen.) 396 124. Negrito chief of Middle Andaman 398 125. Gurkha of the Kus or Khas tribe, Nepal 403 126. Group of Paniyan men and children of Malabar 404 127. Young Irula girl 406 128. Santal of the Bhagalpur Hills 407 129. An old Toda man of Nilgiri Hills 412 130. Group of Todas of Nilgiri Hills 415 131, 132. Singhalese of Candy, Ceylon 416 133. Tutti, Veddah woman of the village of Kolonggala 418 134. Natives of Mekran (Baluchistan) 421 135. Arts and crafts among the Kafirs 430 136. Tunisian Berber, Oasis type 433 137. Trarza Moor of the Senegal 434 138. Hamran Beja of Daghil tribe 437 139. Yoro Combo, fairly pure Fulah of Kayor (Futa Jallon) 442 140. Bonna M’Bané, Mandingan-Sossé 447 141. Catrai, Ganguela-Bantu 456 142. Swazi-Bantu woman and girl 466 143. N’Kon-yui, Bushman of the region of Lake Ngami 467 144. Hova of Tananarivo 472 145. Ambit, Sundanese of Java (Preanger prov.) 476 146. Natives of Livuliri (near Larantuka, Floris) 479 147, 148. Buri, a Solorian of Adanara Island 480, 481 149, 150. “Billy,” Queensland Australian 483, 485 151. Young Papuan woman of the Samarai people 492 152. Papuans of the Kerepunu tribe at Tamain-Hula (New Guinea) 496 153. Woman of the Fuala clan (New Caledonia) 497 154, 155. Tahitian woman of Papeete 502, 503 156. Tahitian of Papeete 504 157. West Greenland Eskimo 517 158, 159. Gahhigué-Vatake, a Dakota-Siouan Indian 521, 523 160. Woman of Wichita tribe, Pawnee Nation, Ind. Terr., U.S. 526 161. Christian Apache Indian 529 162. Young Creole woman of Martinique 538 163. Miztec Indian (Mexico) 539 164. Miztec women (Mexico) 541 165. Guaraunos chief, with his two wives 547 166. Guaraunos of the mouth of the Orinoco 549 167, 168. Kalina or Carib of Dutch Guiana 554, 555 169, 170. Miranha Indian of Rio Yapura 557, 559 171. Bakairi, Carib tribe of upper Xingu 562 172. Aramichaux Indian (Carib tribe of French Guiana) 566 173. Bororo woman (unclassified tribe of Matto Grosso) 568 174. Kamanakar Kipa, young Yahgan Fuegian girl 571 175. Tualanpintsis, Yahgan Fuegian, and his wife Ticoaeli 575 M AP 1. Europe in the first glacial period 303 „ 2. Approximate distribution of the races of Europe 327 THE RACES OF MAN. INTRODUCTION. ETHNIC GROUPS AND ZOOLOGICAL SPECIES. Difficulties in applying to Man the terms of zoological nomenclature—Criterion of species—Terms to give to the “Somatological Units” constituting the genus Homo — Monogenesis and Polygenesis—The “Ethnic Groups” are constituted by the different combinations of the “Somatological Units” or “Races”—Somatic characters and ethnic characters. T HE innumerable groups of mankind, massed together or scattered, according to the varying nature of the earth’s surface, are far from presenting a homogeneous picture. Every country has its own variety of physical type, language, manners, and customs. Thus, in order to exhibit a systematic view of all the peoples of the earth, it is necessary to observe a certain order in the study of these varieties, and to define carefully what is meant by such and such a descriptive term, having reference either to the physical type or to the social life of men. This we shall do in the subsequent chapters as we proceed to develop this slight sketch of the chief general facts of the physical and psychical life of man, and of the most striking social phenomena of the groups of mankind. But there are some general terms which are of more importance than others, and their meaning should be clearly understood from the first. I refer to expressions like “people,” “nation,” “tribe,” “race,” “species,” in short, all the designations of the different groupings, real or theoretic, of human beings. Having defined them, we shall by so doing define the object of our studies. Since ethnography and anthropology began to exist as sciences, an attempt has been made to determine and establish the great groups amongst which humanity might be divided. A considerable diversity of opinion, however, exists among leading scientific men not only as to the number of these groups, of these “primordial divisions” of the human race, but, above all, as to the very nature of these groups. Their significance, most frequently, is very vaguely indicated. In zoology, when we proceed to classify, we have to do with beings which, in spite of slight individual differences, are easily grouped around a certain number of types, with well-defined characters, called “species.” An animal can always be found which will represent the “type” of its species. In all the great zoological collections there exist these “species-types,” to which individuals may be compared in order to decide if they belong to the supposed species. We have then in zoology a real substratum for the determination of species, those primordial units which are grouped afterwards in genera, families, orders, etc. Is it the same for man? Whilst knowing that the zoological genus Homo really exists quite distinct from the other genera of the animal kingdom, there still arises the question as to where the substratum is on which we must begin operations in order to determine the “species” of which this genus is composed. The only definite facts before us are these groups of mankind, dispersed over the whole habitable surface of the globe, to which are commonly given the names of peoples, nations, clans, tribes, etc. We have presented to us Arabs, Swiss, Australians, Bushmen, English, Siouan Indians, Negroes, etc., without knowing if each of these groups is on an equal footing from the point of view of classification. Do these real and palpable groupings represent unions of individuals which, in spite of some slight dissimilarities, are capable of forming what zoologists call “species,” “sub-species,” “varieties,” in the case of wild animals, or “races” in the case of domestic animals? One need not be a professional anthropologist to reply negatively to this question. They are ethnic groups formed by virtue of community of language, religion, social institutions, etc., which have the power of uniting human beings of one or several species, races, or varieties, [1] and are by no means zoological species; they may include human beings of one or of many species, races, or varieties. Here, then, is the first distinction to make: the social groups that we are to describe in this work under the names of clans, tribes, nations, populations, and peoples, according to their numerical importance and the degree of complication of their social life, are formed for us by the union of individuals belonging usually to two, three, or a greater number of “somatological units.” These units are “theoretic types” formed of an aggregation of physical characters combined in a certain way. The separate existence of these units may be established by a minute analysis of the physical characters of a great number of individuals taken haphazard in any given “ethnic group.” Here are, then, entities, theoretic conceptions exactly like “species” in zoology; only instead of having within our reach the “types” of these species as in zoological collections, we are obliged to rest content with approximations thereto, for it is a very rare occurrence to meet with an individual representing the type of the somatological unit to which he belongs. Most frequently we have to do with subjects whose forms are altered by blendings and crossings, and in whom, setting aside two or three typical traits, we find only a confused mixture of characters presenting nothing striking. Ordinarily, the more peoples are civilised the more they are intermixed within certain territorial limits. Thus the number of “somatological units” is so much the greater when the “ethnic groups” are more civilised, and it is only among entirely primitive peoples that one may hope to find coincidence between the two terms. In reality, those peoples are almost undiscoverable who represent “somatological units” comparable to the “species” of zoology. But, it may be asked, do you believe that your “somatological units” are comparable with “species”? Are they not simple “varieties” or “races”? Without wishing to enter into a discussion of details, it seems to me that where the genus Homo is concerned, one can neither speak of the “species,” the “variety,” nor the “race” in the sense that is usually attributed to these words in zoology or in zootechnics. In effect, in these two sciences, the terms “species” and “variety” are applied to wild animals living solely under the influence of nature; whilst the term “race” is given in a general way to the groups of domestic animals living under artificial conditions created by an alien will, that of man, for a well- defined object. Let us see to which of these two categories man, considered as an animal, may be assimilated. By this single fact, that even at the very bottom of the scale of civilisation man possesses articulate speech, fashions tools, and forms himself into rudimentary societies, he is emancipated from a great number of influences which Nature exerts over the wild animal; he lives, up to a certain point, in an artificial environment created by himself. On the other hand, precisely because these artificial conditions of life are not imposed upon him by a will existing outside himself, because his evolution is not directed by a “breeder” or a “domesticator,” man cannot be compared with domestic animals as regards the modifications of his corporeal structure. The data relating to the formation of varieties, species, and races can therefore be applied to the