The School of Salamanca: A Case of Global Knowledge Production The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/mpiw Max Planck Studies in Global Legal History of the Iberian Worlds Editor Thomas Duve The book volumes in the Max Planck Studies in Global Legal History of the Iberian Worlds publish research on legal history of areas which have been in contact with the Iberian empires during the early Modern and Modern period, in Europe, the Americas, Asia and Africa. Its focus is global in the sense that it is not limited to the imperial spaces as such but rather looks at the globalization of normativities within the space related to these imperial formations. It is global also in another sense: The volumes in the series pay special attention to the coexistence of a variety of normativities and their cultural translations in different places and moments, decentring classical research perspectives and opening up for different modes of normativity. The monographs, edited volumes and text editions in the series are peer reviewed, and published in print and online. Brill’s Open Access books are discoverable through doab and distributed free of charge in Brill’s E-Book Collections, and through oapen and jstor. volume 2 LEIDEN | BOSTON The School of Salamanca: A Case of Global Knowledge Production Edited by Thomas Duve, José Luis Egío, and Christiane Birr Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. issn 2590- 3292 isbn 978- 90- 04- 44973- 2 (hardback) isbn 978- 90- 04- 44974- 9 (e- book) Copyright 2021 by Thomas Duve, José Luis Egío, and Christiane Birr. Published by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi, Brill Sense, Hotei Publishing, mentis Verlag, Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh and Wilhelm Fink Verlag. 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Cover illustration: Alonso de la Vera Cruz, Marginal annotations to Hadrianus Florentius, Quaestiones in quartum sententiarum praesertim circa Sacramenta, Paris 1518: heirs of Josse Bade (Museo Regional Michoacano, 56948-9), f. Cr. © Museo Regional Michoacano. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Duve, Thomas, 1967- editor. | Egío, José Luis, editor. | Birr, Christiane, editor. Title: The School of Salamanca : a case of global knowledge production / edited by Thomas Duve, José Luis Egío, and Christiane Birr. Description: Leiden ; Boston : Brill, 2021. | Series: Max Planck studies in global legal history of the Iberian worlds, 2590-3292 ; volume 2 | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020056521 (print) | LCCN 2020056522 (ebook) | ISBN 9789004449732 (hardback) | ISBN 9789004449749 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Learning and scholarship–History–16th century. | Learning and scholarship–History–17th century. | Salamanca school (Catholic theology) | Alonso de la Vera Cruz, fray, approximately 1507-1584. Classification: LCC AZ346 .S45 2021 (print) | LCC AZ346 (ebook) | DDC 001.209/031–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020056521 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020056522 Contents Preface vii List of Figures x Notes on Contributors xii 1 The School of Salamanca A Case of Global Knowledge Production 1 Thomas Duve 2 Salamanca in the New World University Regulation or Social Imperatives? 43 Enrique González González 3 Observance against Ambition The Struggle for the Chancellor’s Office at the Real Universidad de San Carlos in Guatemala (1686–1696) 82 Adriana Álvarez 4 The Influence of Salamanca in the Iberian Peninsula The Case of the Faculties of Theology of Coimbra and Évora 120 Lidia Lanza and Marco Toste 5 From Fray Alonso de la Vera Cruz to Fray Martín de Rada The School of Salamanca in Asia 169 Dolors Folch 6 Creating Authority and Promoting Normative Behaviour Confession, Restitution, and Moral Theology in the Synod of Manila (1582– 1586) 210 Natalie Cobo 7 “Sepamos, Señores, en que ley vivimos y si emos de tener por nuestra regla al Consejo de Indias”: Salamanca in the Philippine Islands 245 Osvaldo R. Moutin 8 “Mirando las cosas de cerca”: Indigenous Marriage in the Philippines in the Light of Law and Legal Opinions (17th–18th Centuries) 264 Marya Camacho vi Contents 9 The Influence of the School of Salamanca in Alonso de la Vera Cruz’s De dominio infidelium et iusto bello First relectio in America 294 Virginia Aspe 10 Producing Normative Knowledge between Salamanca and Michoacán Alonso de la Vera Cruz and the Bumpy Road of Marriage 335 José Luis Egío 11 Legal Education at the University of Córdoba (1767–1821): From the Colony to the Homeland A Reinterpretation of the Salamanca Tradition from a New Context 399 Esteban Llamosas Index 425 Preface During the last decades, a growing number of studies on the history of science, philosophy, theology, and law have highlighted the importance of the so-called “School of Salamanca”. These studies apply a multiplicity of approaches from a variety of disciplines (legal history, economic and political history, theology, ethnohistory, etc.) and have also renewed the debate about the definition and the scope of the School itself. Traditionally, the School has been identified as a comparatively small group of theologians, students and professors at the renowned Castilian university, starting with Francisco de Vitoria and Domingo de Soto. However, the importance of the School, its literature, methods, and the community of its scholars extended far beyond the small university town on the banks of the river Tormes. In recent years, the global profile of the School has become ever more evident. The decisive role played by its writings in the emergence of colonial normative regimes and the formation of a language of normativity on a global scale has been emphasized by studies in fields as diverse as the history of the university of Salamanca itself, colonial and impe- rial history, as well as the study of international law and of legal history. However, even in this broader picture, American and Asian actors usually appear as passive recipients of normative knowledge produced in Europe. It is this fundamental misconception of the agency in the so-called peripheries of the Iberian world that this book seeks to revise. Its case studies and ana- lytical approaches highlight the closely knit structures of personal, academic, and intellectual exchange between far-flung regions of the globe, revealing an epistemic community and a community of practice that cannot be fixed to a single place. The eleven chapters of this book propose a conceptual reorientation of the research on the School. The opening chapter (Thomas Duve) sets out the methodological foundation on which the following case studies and analyses are based, exploring the School of Salamanca as a phenomenon of global knowledge production. Geographically, the case studies comprise such diverse regions of the Iberian world as México (Virginia Aspe, José Luis Egío), Guatemala (Adriana Álvarez), Portugal (Lidia Lanza/Marco Toste), Tucumán, part of the Viceroyalty of Peru (Esteban Llamosas) and the Philippines (Marya Camacho, Natalie Cobo, Dolors Folch, Osvaldo Moutin). The topics range from university history and historiography (Adriana Álvarez, Enrique González González, Lidia Lanza/Marco Toste, Esteban Llamosas), governance and eccle- siastical legislation (Natalie Cobo, Osvaldo Moutin), the highly debated ques- tion of indigenous dominium (Virginia Aspe) to the sacraments of marriage viii Preface (José Luis Egío) and penance (Natalie Cobo). The global dimension of the biographies and careers of the members of the School are the subject of var- ious contributions. As examples of these careers linking Salamanca with the Iberian world across the globe serve Alonso de la Vera Cruz as one of the most important American authors of this globally understood School of Salamanca (discussed by Virginia Aspe, José Luis Egío and Dolors Folch) and Domingo de Salazar, a Salamanca-educated theologian who went on to become the first bishop of Manila (see Osvaldo Moutin’s contribution). The authors of the chapters take up recurring themes in order to offer a consolidated, interconnected treatment of the School of Salamanca as a phe- nomenon of global knowledge production that the School of Salamanca was. The volume’s Argentinian, British, German, Italian, Mexican, Portuguese, Philippine, and Spanish contributors represent different disciplines, such as legal history, cultural history, social history, philosophy, and canon law. Most of them took part in the conference “La Escuela de Salamanca, ¿un ejemplo de producción global de conocimiento?” (Buenos Aires, October 24–26, 2018). Other contributors joined this book project as a result of their contacts with the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History1 in Frankfurt and the pro- ject “The School of Salamanca. A Digital Collection of Sources and a Dictionary of its Juridical-Political Language”, a collaboration between the Academy of Sciences and Literature, Mainz, the Goethe University, Frankfurt, and the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History. We are very grateful to the Academia Nacional de la Historia de la República Argentina in Buenos Aires for hosting our conference in October 2018, as well as to the Biomedicine Research Institute of Buenos Aires, the conicet- Partner Institute of the Max Planck Society (IBioBA-mpsp), who generously hosted a one-day workshop dedicated to enabling researchers to share experi- ences in creating and working with digital editions and discuss perspectives in the use of Digital Humanities in the field of legal history. Special thanks go to the president of the Asociación Argentina de Humanidades Digitales (aahd), Gimena del Rio Riande (secrit- iibicrit, conicet). Drawing together such an international group of experts requires a lot of resources, and therefore we are very grateful to the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History as well as to the Goethe University, Frankfurt, for their generous financial support, in the case of the latter through the university’s program promoting academic exchange with Latin America. The concept of the conference as well as the 1 As of January 2021, the Institute will be renamed the “Max Planck Institute for Legal History and Legal Theory”. Preface ix book was discussed with many of our colleagues from the project “The School of Salamanca”, Goethe University and the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History. We would like to thank especially Matthias Lutz-Bachmann, Juan Belda Plans, Manuela Bragagnolo, Natalie Cobo, Otto Danwerth, David Glück, Nicole Pasakarnis, Christian Pogies and Andreas Wagner. We are grateful to them and many colleagues from the Goethe University and the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History for the opportunities to present and critically discuss our ideas. Thomas Duve, José Luis Egío, and Christiane Birr Frankfurt am Main, September 2020 Figures 5.1 Martín de Rada holding an astrolabe followed by Andrés de Urdaneta and a troupe of tonsured Augustinian friars. The group of friars responsible for the spiritual conquest of the Philippines – which appear together with China, Borneo, and Siam in the rather chaotic map at the centre of the engraving – is presided over by Saint Augustin. In front of the friars are Philip ii and Miguel López de Legazpi, leading the military conquerors of the Philippine archipelago, in Gaspar de San Agustín, o.s.a., Conquistas de las islas Philipinas: la temporal por las armas del Señor Don Phelipe Segundo El Prudente; y la espiritual, por los religiosos del Orden de San Agustín , Madrid, 1698: Manuel Ruiz de Murga (Biblioteca aecid, Madrid, 3V-381), [s.p.] 179 5.2 Víctor Villán, Portrait of Martín de Rada, the missionary-geographer, with a small breviary, geography books, a world globe and a spyglass , 1879 (Museo Oriental de Valladolid) 180 8.1 Juan de Paz, Consultas y resoluciones, varias teológicas, juridicas, regulares, y morales [ ... ] , Seville, 1687: Thomas Lopez de Haro (Archivo de la Universidad de Santo Tomas, Libros, 202a), title page 273 10.1 Alonso de la Vera Cruz, Speculum coniugiorum , México 1556: Juan Pablo Bricense (Biblioteca Pública de la Universidad Michoacana, bpum K623 V4 1566), title page 342 10.2 Alonso de la Vera Cruz, Speculum coniugiorum , Alcalá 1572: Juan Gracián (Museo Regional Michoacano, 56950–11), title page 343 10.3 Narciso Bassols?, Gustavo Corona?, Typewritten cards inserted in Alonso de la Vera Cruz, Cursus artium , Salamanca 1572–73: Juan Bautista de Terranova (Museo Regional Michoacano, 57272–333, 57273– 334, 57274–335) 347 10.4 Hadrianus Florentius, Quaestiones in quartum sententiarum praesertim circa Sacramenta , Paris 1518: heirs of Josse Bade (Museo Regional Michoacano, 56948–9), title page 353 10.5 Hadrianus Florentius, Quaestiones in quartum sententiarum praesertim circa Sacramenta , Paris 1518: heirs of Josse Bade (Museo Regional Michoacano, 56948–9), fol. XIVr 354 10.6 Alonso de la Vera Cruz, Marginal annotations to Hadrianus Florentius, Quaestiones in quartum sententiarum praesertim circa Sacramenta , Paris 1518: heirs of Josse Bade (Museo Regional Michoacano, 56948–9), fol. XIVr 355 10.7 Alonso de la Vera Cruz, Speculum coniugiorum , Alcalá 1572: Juan Gracián (Biblioteca de la Universidad de Sevilla, A Res. 59/5/ 22 (1)), 29 357 10.8 Alonso de la Vera Cruz, Speculum coniugiorum , Alcalá 1572: Juan Gracián (Biblioteca de la Universidad de Sevilla, A Res. 59/5/ 22 (1)), 653 361 Figures xi 10.9 Alonso de la Vera Cruz, Speculum coniugiorum , México 1556: Juan Pablo Bricense (John Carter Brown Library, BA556.A454s), 601 369 10.10 Alonso de la Vera Cruz, Speculum coniugiorum , Salamanca 1562: Andrea de Portonaris (Università di Roma, La Sapienza, IIc 55/v 8823), 522 369 10.11 [Alonso de la Vera Cruz], Bulla confirmationis et novae concessionis privilegiorum omnium ordinum Mendicantium , México 1568: Antonio de Espinosa (Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, Biblioteca Histórica José María Lafragua, 7138_03-41010303), title page 388 Notes on Contributors Adriana Álvarez is Researcher at the Faculty of Philosophy and Literature of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Mexico City). Virginia Aspe is Researcher at the Faculty of Philosophy of the Universidad Panamericana de México (Mexico City). Marya Camacho is Researcher at the Faculty of History of the University of Asia & the Pacific (Manila). Natalie Cobo is DPhil student at the University of Oxford. She is translating Solórzano y Pereira’s ‘De Gubernatione’ (1639) within the project Translating Solórzano at the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History (Frankfurt am Main). Thomas Duve is Director at the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History, co-director of the research project The School of Salamanca and Professor of Comparative Legal History, Goethe University (Frankfurt am Main). José Luis Egío is Researcher of the project The School of Salamanca (Academy of Sciences and Literature Mainz, Max Planck Institute for European Legal History, and Goethe University (Frankfurt am Main). Dolors Folch is Emeritus Professor at the Humanities Department of the Universitat Pompeu Fabra (Barcelona). Enrique González González is Researcher at the Instituto de Investigaciones sobre la Universidad y la Educación (iisue) of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (Mexico City). Notes on Contributors xiii Lidia Lanza is Researcher at the School of Arts and Humanities, Centre of Philosophy at the University of Lisbon (Portugal). Esteban Llamosas is conicet researcher, Director of the Juridical and Social Research Institute at the Law and Social Sciences Faculty of the Universidad Nacional de Córdoba (Argentina) and Assistant Professor of Legal History at the same Faculty. Osvaldo R. Moutin is a former researcher at the Max Planck Institute for European Legal History (Frankfurt am Main). Marco Toste is PhD student at the Department of Philosophy of the Université de Fribourg (Switzerland). newgenprepdf chapter 1 The School of Salamanca A Case of Global Knowledge Production Thomas Duve 1 Introduction What is today known as the “School of Salamanca” emerged in a time of fundamental political, religious, economic, and cultural transformations. Many of these were linked to early modern (proto-)globalisation and its con- sequences: the Iberian empires were expanding and their territories soon spanned the globe. Europeans encountered territories as well as cultural and political systems they had not known before. At the same time, reformations divided the res publica christiana , leading to huge political turmoil, wars, and the formation of different confessional cultures. The media revolution enabled communication at speeds and scales hitherto unknown and facilitated access to old and an avalanche of new knowledge. Not least because of these changes, early modern republics and monarchies, empires, religious orders, and the Roman Curia refined their techniques of governance. It was in this context that new universities were founded and traditional ones grew, professionalisation increased, and the sciences flourished. The University of Salamanca, founded in 1218, played a key role in this devel- opment, particularly because the Catholic Kings had converted it into their privileged site of knowledge production. In Salamanca, humanists, jurists, cosmographers, theologians, and canonists trained the imperial elite. Here, future bishops, members of the Audiencias , jurists, and missionaries studied the measurement of space and time, the economy, language, faith, law, and justice and injustice. The preeminent scholars of the time came to Salamanca to teach, publishing houses established their officinae in the city, and probably in few places in the empire did so much information about the explorations and discoveries in the Caribbean and the Americas – including the violence, exploitation, and abuses committed by the European invaders – circulate as it did in Salamanca. Missionaries returned to their alma mater , university profes- sors came from New Spain to publish their books, and members of the power- ful religious orders sent reports to their monasteries. The Castilian elite asked for advice and a figure no less than the emperor himself repeatedly consulted © Thomas Duve, 2021 | DOI:10.1163/9789004449749_002 This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC 4.0 license. 2 Duve scholars from Salamanca to give their opinion on the most pressing issues of the time. Thus, in Salamanca more than in any other place in Castile, information from different areas and fields was collected, processed, and integrated into theoretical reflection. Huge treatises were written which became objects of study for generations of students. Many of them were dedicated to questions of law and justice. Often these books saw several editions and were translated, excerpted, and abridged in compendia and summaries. Salamanca seemed – and is still often taken to be – synonymous with scientific innovation and knowledge production in the Siglo de Oro Español . It is therefore not by chance that the names of Francisco de Vitoria, Domingo de Soto, Domingo Bañez, Martín de Azpilcueta, Melchor Cano, and Francisco Suárez, all of whom had at some time taught at Salamanca, still to this day stand pars pro toto for a century during which key insights into the natural world, economics, theology, philosophy, as well as law were formulated. The University of Salamanca and its famous “School of Salamanca” have become an important part of the his- tory of theology, philosophy, cosmography, natural sciences, and law.1 1 There is an abundant literature on the School of Salamanca and its historical context, and it is of course impossible to list all these works in this introductory chapter. A comprehen- sive introductory study of the School with many further references for its historical and theological context is Belda Plans, La Escuela de Salamanca y la renovación de la teología en el siglo xvi . Scholars like Barrientos García, Brufau Prats, Pereña, and others have pub- lished seminal studies on the School of Salamanca that are indispensable for research on the School. For more references see also three extensive bibliographies on the history of the University of Salamanca and the School: Rodríguez-San Pedro Bezares and Polo Rodríguez, “Bibliografía sobre la Universidad de Salamanca (1800–2007)”; Pena González, Aproximación bibliográfica a la(s) «Escuela(s) de Salamanca» ; Ramírez Santos and Egío, Conceptos, autores, instituciones . Ramírez and Egío not only provided an updated systematic bibliography but also included a thoughtful introduction to some of the developments in research over the last decades. Important legal historical studies on the School of Salamanca that furnish spe- cific bibliographies on individual topics include Decock, Theologians and Contract Law. The Moral Transformation of the Ius Commune (ca. 1500–1650) ; Gordley, The Philosophical Origins of Modern Contract Doctrine ; Jansen, Theologie, Philosophie und Jurisprudenz in der spät- scholastischen Lehre von der Restitution ; and Scattola, Krieg des Wissens . For an introduction to the larger context of law and morality in the early modern period from the perspective of legal history, see Decock and Birr, Recht und Moral in der Scholastik der Frühen Neuzeit 1500–1750 . There is a huge amount of literature on Salamanca’s role in the history of political thought (with Anthony Pagden and Annabel Brett as central reference points), imperial pol- itics, international law, human rights, the discussions about the rights of indigenous peoples, and increasingly also on Salamanca and slavery. Not least the “historical turn in international law” initiated by Martti Koskenniemi has led to a wave of new publications on the School, most of them concentrating on the history of the “rediscovery” of the School in the 19th cen- tury and its significance for international law. Important insights into the moral foundations The School of Salamanca 3 It was the same centrality of the University of Salamanca that converted it into a centre of knowledge production which was deeply entangled with other places. Universities and seminaries in Europe, America, and Asia taught accord- ing to the methods and, in some cases, also following the statutes of Salamanca. However, as the chapters by González González, Álvarez Sánchez, and Lanza/ Toste in this volume show with great clarity, this also meant that Salamanca’s methods were not simply copied but translated – in the broader sense of cul- tural translation2 – into local realities on different continents. Likewise, in Mexico, Manila, and elsewhere, excerpts, copies, rewritings, new manuscripts, and printed books were produced that drew on ideas and practices stemming from Salamanca which created something new in turn. Ultimately, these actors were convinced that – notwithstanding the different places and situations they were living in – they were all subject to universal principles, contributed to their realisation by putting them into practice under a variety of local con- ditions, and shared a basic consensus about how to proceed in doing so. The chapters of Folch, Cobo, Moutin, Camacho, Egío, and Aspe Armella present case studies of how actors negotiated the tension between universality and locality in New Spain, the Philippines, and in the context of contact with China respectively. Some of the books written in the New World were printed, read, and commented on in Salamanca and so gave rise to new deliberations in the university and the Convent of San Esteban. The letters that teachers received from their former students now serving in America or Iberian Asia and the stories they told when they returned to Salamanca contained rich information and raised questions which theologians tried to answer in their classes and treatises. In other words, communication was not unidirectional: knowledge circulated and was continuously reshaped. Salamanca was an important node of early modern law and politics have been gained through the works of Paolo Prodi, Adriano Prosperi, and others following them. Although they do not concentrate exclusively on the School of Salamanca, they reveal the importance of moral theology and its practice for the early modern Catholic world. Since the late 1970s, Spanish legal historians like Jesús Lalinde Abadía and Bartolomé Clavero have increased our awareness of the importance of religion in early modern Iberian legal history and its colonial contexts. A recent collection on early modern political and social thought with contributions on colonial law and other aspects has now been presented by Tellkamp (ed.), A Companion to Early Modern Spanish Imperial Political and Social Thought and a companion to the School of Salamanca is being prepared by Braun and Astorri (eds.), A Companion to the Spanish Scholastics . For a general survey of the history of the period, see Bouza, Cardim, and Feros, The Iberian World and Barreto Xavier, Palomo, and Stumpf (eds.), Monarquías Ibéricas 2 In this article, the term “cultural translation” is used in the broad sense it has acquired in cultural studies. For a full discussion of this, see Duve, “Pragmatic Normative Literature”. 4 Duve in a huge web of places in which normative knowledge was produced.3 It is this global perspective on knowledge production in the Iberian worlds that this book wants to explore.4 Normative knowledge, however, is not only about theory, ideas, principles, or doctrines: it also comprises practices. It is, as has been expressed for a mod- ern context, “an activity of mind, a way of doing something with the rules and cases and other materials of law, an activity that is itself not reducible to a set of directions or any fixed description. It is a species of cultural competence, like learning a language.”5 The same applies – to an even greater degree – to the early modern world, which is why it was the mode of reasoning that was taught and practiced in Salamanca, and the way in which concrete cases were resolved according to it, that shaped the way justice was administered in many places. Wherever a missionary, priest, bishop, or even a judge or crown official who had studied in Salamanca or read books from there exercised his office, he produced new normative statements drawing on what he had learned in or from Salamanca. The analyses of collections of decisions of judicial bod- ies, declarations of bishops, practices of teaching, and the writing of opinions about central problems of colonial life (such as marriage, restitution, and just war) in the contributions of Aspe Armella, Camacho, Cobo, Egío, Folch, Moutin, and Lanza/Toste respectively, point to these pragmatic contexts of 3 Within the extensive debate about “information” and “knowledge” and their respective defi- nitions, I have opted for a distinction between the terms that conceives of information as the basic unit, as data with a general relevance and purpose. Information is converted into knowledge as soon as it is contextualised and integrated into a field of action, opening up possibilities for action. Knowledge can therefore be understood as the entirety of the propo- sitions that the members of a group consider to be true or which are considered to be true in a sufficient amount of texts produced by members of this group, comprising all kind of pat- terns of thought, orientation and action. It comprises also implicit knowledge embedded in practices and organisational routines; on the different definitions, see for example Neumann, “Kulturelles Wissen”, 811 and Wehling, “Wissensregime”. My definition is narrower than the one used by Renn and Hyman, “The Globalization of Knowledge in History: An Introduction”, 21– 22, who defined knowledge as the capacity of an individual, group, or society to solve problems and to mentally anticipate the necessary actions; they provided an interesting list of forms of knowledge representations and forms of transmission. For a systematic overview, see also Abel, “Systematic Knowledge Research”. In the following discussion, “normative” knowledge refers to knowledge as “positively labelled possibilities”, a definition developed by Christoph Möllers in Möllers, Die Möglichkeit der Normen . On these aspects, see Duve, “Pragmatic Normative Literature”. 4 For the ideas underlying the book project, see the working paper sent to the authors with the invitation to participate and discuss their contributions in a workshop held in Buenos Aires in 2018, Duve, “La Escuela de Salamanca: ¿un caso de producción global de conocimiento?”. 5 White, “Legal Knowledge”, 1399. The School of Salamanca 5 the production of normative knowledge. It was – as this introductory chap- ter seeks to highlight – the combination of the School’s dynamic intellectual and scientific development and its essentially pragmatic character, aiming at the cura animarum, that is central to understanding the School. It might well have been precisely this combination of theory and practice that contributed to the School of Salamanca’s world-wide impact on the formation of a lan- guage of normativity and normative practices, irrespective of whether we see the School as part of oppressive legal imperialism or as the beginnings of cos- mopolitan law – or, indeed, as both.6 This worldwide presence and translation of normative knowledge which was developed in Salamanca, the interconnectedness between Salamanca and other places, and the pragmatic orientation of its method(s) of reasoning raise important questions. Firstly, they make us wonder what the defining criteria of the “School of Salamanca” might be and how to decide who should be counted a member of the School, not least in geographic terms. Should they be only those who had learned or taught Thomistic theology at Salamanca, as some scholars main- tain? However, if one restricts the School geographically to Salamanca, how should one classify the work done in Coimbra and Évora? Would Martín de Azpilcueta, who first wrote his bestselling Manual de Confessores in Coimbra where he had been sent from Salamanca, count as a member of the School? And how should one classify what was taught and written in Manila, or Mexico, or in seminaries and colleges in Córdoba del Tucumán by scholars who had studied in Salamanca and applied what they had learned there? Or teachings or writings of those who had never touched Castilian soil but were deeply immersed in Salamanca-style thinking and put it into practice? The chapters in this volume show that there are good reasons to integrate them into a joint analysis together with those “Spanish” authors traditionally considered to be members of the School. And why – to raise further questions resulting from the pragmatic orien- tation of early modern moral theology as it was practiced in Salamanca – do we define the School as a group of authors and not as a community of prac- tices? Why do we not include their judgements in individual cases, in both the forum externum and the forum internum, or their opinions and practical advice into the set of sources that make up the School? What idea of the School 6 The significance of the political language is emphasised both by scholars who highlight the contribution of Salamanca to international law in a more defensive – or even in some cases hagiographic – manner and by those who are taking a more critical perspective. For a bal- anced assessment, see Koskenniemi, “Empire and International Law”.