China – The New Developmental State? An Empirical Analysis of the Automotive Industry H O H E N H E I M E R V O L K S W I R T S C H A F T L I C H E S C H R I F T E N Nicola Meier Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access The central focus of this analysis is whether the economic growth of China can be attributed to an emulation of the development models of Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Based on the developmental state theory, an East Asian developmental state model is set up as a benchmark. The thesis uses an empirical analysis of the auto industry to highlight the performance outcome of China’s development strategy. The author confirms that China has evolved into a developmental state similar in its core characteristics to the three leading East Asian states. The model of development in China, however, is an innovative combination of factors from the developmental states, the legacies of the past command economy as well as of the adopted market economy mechanism including international capital flows. Nicola Meier, born in Boeblingen, Germany in 1977, studied Politics, Economics and Sociology at the University in Tuebingen, where she completed her Master degree. From 2003 until 2007, she worked as a doctoral candidate in the Economic and Market Intelligence Department at an automotive company in Stuttgart, where she is with the External Affairs and Public Policy team since 2008. H O H E N H E I M E R V O L K S W I R T S C H A F T L I C H E S C H R I F T E N Nicola Meier China – The New Developmental State? Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access China - The New Developmental State? Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access Hohenheimer Volkswirtschaftliche Schriften Herausgegeben von Prof. Dr. Michael Ahlheim, Prof. Dr. Thomas BeiBlnger, Prof. or. Ansgar Belke, Prof. Dr. Rolf Caesar, Prof. or. Harald Hagemann, Prof. or. Klaus Herdzina, Prof. or. Walter Piesch, Prof. or. lngo Schmidt, Prof. or. Ulrich Schwalbe, Prof. or. Peter Spahn, Prof. or. Jochen Streb, Prof. or. Gerhard Wagenhals, Band60 ~ PETER LANG Frankfurt am Main • Berlln • Bern •Bruxelles• New York• Oxford • Wien Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access Nicola Meier China -The New Developmental State? An Empirical Analysis of the Automotive Industry £ PETER LANG Frankfurt am Main. Berlin. Bern. Bruxelles. New York. Oxford• Wien Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access Open Access: The online version of this publication is published on www.peterlang.com and www.econstor.eu under the interna- tional Creative Commons License CC-BY 4.0. Learn more on how you can use and share this work: http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by/4.0. This book is available Open Access thanks to the kind support of ZBW – Leibniz-Informationszentrum Wirtschaft. ISBN 978-3-631-75399-6 (eBook) Bibliographic Information published by the Deutsche Natlonalblbliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the internet at <http://www.d-nb.de>. :f Zugl.: Hohenheim, Univ., Diss., 2008 D 100 ISSN 0721-3085 ISBN 978-3-631-58284-8 © Peter Lang GmbH lnternationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften Frankfurt am Main 2009 All rights reserved. All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilisation outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations, microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. Printed in Germany 1 2 3 4 5 7 www.peterlang.de Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access To my family Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access Acknowledgements It is a delightful opportunity to thank the people who helped in the preparation of this study. I want to express my deepest appreciation and respect to Prof. Dr. Ansgar Belke, and my second supervisor, Prof. Dr. Sonja Opper. They were wonderful Ph.D. advisers who complemented each other perfectly. They devoted enormous amounts of their time and intelligence and took great efforts to help me expand my knowledge on the subject and spurred on the completion of the thesis. I am also thankful to them for carefully reading and commenting on countless revisions of this manuscript. I am extremely grateful for the assistance, generosity and encouragement I received from my colleagues and friends in the Economic and Market Intelligence team at Daimler AG, especially, Dr. Peter-Ruediger Puf, Juergen W. Mueller and Dr. Inge Konrad. They have always supported this study, and given me advice and support. Furthermore, they constantly encouraged my business career within the company. My special thanks go to Inga, whose influence on this study cannot be overstated. He spent hours reading parts of the thesis and discussing various issues with me. I wish to thank my dearest friends who proof-read this thesis, and constantly motivated me, supported me morally, and always understood the time stress I was suffering from. I thank them all for giving me their friendship, as deep and as rich as friendship can be. I reserve my most profound thanks for my family, whose trust and belief in me have been endless. They have always enthusiastically taken part in my life, and helped with words and deeds at all times. From the bottom of my heart, I thank Tim for his continuous understanding and energetic support during the last years. He sacrificed a great deal for my academic career, endured with serenity and selflessness every emotion, and suffered long hours of neglect during the preparation of this thesis. I thank the Stiftung Landesbank Baden-Wurttemberg for the financial support. Stuttgart, November 2007 Nicola Meier Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access Table of contents Table of contents List of figures .............................................................................................................. 13 List of tables ............................................................................................................... 15 List of tables in the appendix ...................................................................................... 18 List of abbreviations .................................................................................................... 20 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 23 1.1 The context - putting China in perspective ..................................................... 23 1.2 The state of research and aim of the study .................................................... 24 1.3 Methodology and available sources ............................................................... 27 1.4 Line of action .................................................................................................. 30 2 The East Asian developmental states ...................................................................... 33 2.1 Debate on the beneficial role of the state ....................................................... 33 2.2 The developmental state theory ..................................................................... 36 2.2.1 Early recognition of the state's role in industrialization ............................. 36 2.2.2 Origin of the East Asian capitalist developmental state theory ................. 39 2.2.3 Different developmental state approaches ............................................... 41 2.3 The developmental states' institutional and bureaucratic organization .......... 44 2.3.1 Depoliticized elite bureaucracy ................................................................. 44 2.3.2 Cohesiveness and autonomy of the elite bureaucracy ............................. 45 2.3.3 The pilot agency ....................................................................................... 48 2.4 State-led economic growth ............................................................................ 49 2.4.1 East Asian industrial policy ....................................................................... 50 2.4.2 Trade policy - import substitution and export promotion .......................... 53 2.4.3 Foreign capital .......................................................................................... 59 2.5 Financial system ............................................................................................ 60 2.6 State-society and government-business relations .......................................... 64 2.6.1 State-society relations .............................................................................. 64 2.6.2 Government-business relations ................................................................ 67 2.6.2.1 Information exchange .......................................................................... 68 2.6.2.2 Embedded autonomy .......................................................................... 70 2. 7 Assessment of the East Asian developmental state approach ...................... 73 2.7.1 Subjects unaddressed by the developmental state theory ........................ 73 2.7.2 The East Asian Developmental State Model ............................................ 77 2.7.3 Emulation of the developmental state model by other developing countries? ................................................................................................. 83 9 Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access Table of contents 3 A new model of economic development .................................................................. 85 3.1 Applicability of the East Asian Developmental State Model to China ............. 85 3.1.1 Conditions of the Chinese economic development approach ................... 85 3.1 .2 Characteristics that distinguish China from the developmental states ...... 89 3.2 Bureaucracy ................................................................................................... 91 3.2.1 Bureaucratic organizational structure ....................................................... 92 3.2.2 The civil service system ............................................................................ 95 3.2.2.1 Depolitization of civil servants? ........................................................... 95 3.2.2.2 Meritocratic recruitment ....................................................................... 96 3.2.3 A Chinese pilot agency? ......................................................................... 103 3.2.3.1 The State Planning Commission and its successors ......................... 104 3.2.3.2 Streamlined government structure .................................................... 108 3.3 State ............................................................................................................ 111 3.3.1 Industrial policy ....................................................................................... 112 3.3.2 Institutional reforms - drivers of and obstacles to economic growth ....... 117 3.3.2.1 Fiscal federalism ............................................................................... 117 3.3.2.2 Collective ownership ......................................................................... 121 3.3.2.3 Corruption .......................................................................................... 125 3.3.2.4 Local protectionism ........................................................................... 126 3.3.3 Promotion of selected sectors, companies and projects ......................... 128 3.3.3.1 Industrial policy targeting S&T ........................................................... 129 3.3.3.2 State effort to increase China's R&D capabilities .............................. 133 3.3.4 Foreign participation ............................................................................... 136 3.3.4.1 Substantial reliance on FOi ............................................................... 137 3.3.4.2 State guidance of FOi ........................................................................ 142 3.3.5 Export-oriented industrialization ............................................................. 146 3.3.5.1 Export promotion and import substitution .......................................... 147 3.3.5.2 Sectoral targeting of exports .............................................................. 148 3.3.5.3 The central government's devaluation policy to promote exports ...... 150 3.3.5.4 Export-FOi nexus in Special Economic Zones .................................. 152 3.4 Financial system .......................................................................................... 157 3.4.1 Government influence over the financial system .................................... 158 3.4.2 Sectoral and firm-level allocation of credit .............................................. 162 3.4.3 Fragility of the Chinese financial system ................................................. 164 3.5 Government-business relations ................................................................... 167 3.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 170 10 Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access Table of contents 4 The auto industry in the light of the Chinese development approach ...................................................................................................................173 4.1 Design of research ....................................................................................... 174 4.1 .1 Qualitative analysis ................................................................................. 175 4.1 .1.1 Expert interviews as a method of qualitative research ...................... 176 4.1.1.2 Interview partners and questionnaires ............................................... 177 4.1.1.3 Research design quality .................................................................... 179 4.1 .2 Quantitative analysis ............................................................................... 180 4.1.2.1 The data sample ................................................................................ 180 4.1.2.2 Methodology of the statistical evaluation ........................................... 181 4.1 .3 Shortcomings of the research approach ................................................. 184 4.2 Bureaucratic framework of the auto industry ................................................ 185 4.2.1 Bureaucratic institutions shaping the auto sector's development ........... 186 4.2.2 Policy-making and implementation ......................................................... 190 4.3 National auto industrial policy ...................................................................... 197 4.3.1 FDls in the auto sector ............................................................................ 199 4.3.1.1 Designation of nine auto groups ........................................................ 200 4.3.1.2 Attraction of foreign investors ............................................................ 202 4.3.1 .3 Revised policy approach after WTO accession ................................. 205 4.3.2 Trade policy for the auto sector .............................................................. 210 4.3.2.1 Import substitution ............................................................................. 211 4.3.2.1.1 Infant-industry protection of the auto sector through tariff barriers until 2001 .................................................................................. 212 4.3.2.1.2 Reduction of tariff barriers and introduction of non-tariff barriers since 2001 ............................................................................................. 213 4.3.2.2 Export promotion ............................................................................... 220 4.3.3 Localism in the auto industry .................................................................. 223 4.3.3.1 Incentives to boost the development of the auto sector .................... 223 4.3.3.2 Protectionist measures to safeguard local auto companies ............... 227 4.3.3.3 Different development approaches for the auto sector - Beijing and Shanghai. ........................................................................ 231 4.4 Financial system as an instrument to regulate the auto sector's growth ...... 242 4.5 Government-business cooperation and information sharing in the auto sector ......................................................................................... 245 4.6 Two decades of state-promotion in the auto sector ..................................... 251 4.6.1 Achievements ......................................................................................... 252 4.6.2 Shortcomings .......................................................................................... 256 4.6.2.1 Fragmentation of the auto market ..................................................... 256 4.6.2.2 Limited market share and technology know-how ............................... 261 11 Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access Table of contents 4.6.2.3 International competitiveness ............................................................ 268 4.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 273 5 Evaluation and lessons from China's model of economic development. ............................................................................................................275 5.1 China - the new developmental state .......................................................... 275 5.2 Uniqueness of the Chinese development approach ..................................... 277 5.3 Lessons from China's new model of economic development ...................... 283 Appendix ...........................................................................................................................289 Appendix I: List of experts interviewed in China ................................................... 290 Appendix II: Experts' affiliation ............................................................................. 291 Appendix Ill: Topic overview for interviewees ...................................................... 296 Appendix IV: Questionnaire for company representatives ................................... 297 Appendix V: Statistics of the 2001 World Bank survey ......................................... 302 References ........................................................................................................................ 311 12 Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access List of figures List of figures Figure 1: Triangulation ......................................................................................... 29 Figure 2: Line of action ........................................................................................ 32 Figure 3: The state's role in development... ........................................................ 41 Figure 4: A framework for state-societal interaction ............................................ 66 Figure 5: Highlighted features of developmental states by different scholars ..... 78 Figure 6: The East Asian Developmental State Model. ....................................... 82 Figure 7: The distribution of public employment in China ................................... 94 Figure 8: The restructuring of government in 2003 ............................................ 108 Figure 9: Extrabudgetary revenue of local governments, 1978-1994................ 119 Figure 10: Revenue ratio of central and local governments, 1978-2006 ............. 120 Figure 11: Share of gross industrial output value by type of firm ownership, 1978-2006 ........................................................................................... 124 Figure 12: Inward FDI stock as a percentage of GDP, by host region and economy, 1980 - 2006 ....................................................................... 139 Figure 13: Share of contractual amount of FDI by type of firm ownership, 1994-2006 ........................................................................................... 141 Figure 14: Foreign trade, 1978-2006................................................................... 147 Figure 15: Development of exchange rate RMB/USD, 1985-2006...................... 151 Figure 16: Exports of FFEs, 1980-2006 ............................................................... 155 Figure 17: Structure of the Chinese financial system .......................................... 159 Figure 18: Sectoral distribution of government assistance in loan applications, 2003 .................................................................................................... 163 Figure 19: Total NPLs and NPL ratio of major commercial banks, 2003-2006 .... 166 Figure 20: The Chinese model of state-guidance ................................................ 171 Figure 21: Output of motor vehicles in provinces and municipalities, 2006 ......... 175 Figure 22: Qualitative research design ................................................................ 180 13 Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access List of figures Figure 23: Key institutions engaged in auto industry regulation and oversight.... 188 Figure 24: Total investment in the auto industry (including parts and components), 1976-2005................................... 206 Figure 25: Imports of passenger cars after WTO accession ................................ 215 Figure 26: Overcapacity in the Chinese passenger car market, 1998 - 2005 ..... 220 Figure 27: Output of auto parts by region, 2003 .................................................. 234 Figure 28: Production of motor vehicles in Beijing and Shanghai and national new light vehicle registrations, 1995-2006.......................................... 241 Figure 29: Chinese quarterly passenger car sales, 2002-2005 ........................... 244 Figure 30: Total pre-tax profit in the auto industry (foreign and domestic invested; complete vehicles and components), 1990-2003 ................ 253 Figure 31: Production locations of foreign OEMs in China .................................. 254 Figure 32: Number of OEMs in the auto industry, 1980-2005 ............................. 257 Figure 33: Number of OEMs in the auto industry producing x units of vehicles, 2005 ..................................................................................... 258 Figure 34: Number of OEMs and suppliers in the auto industry making x amount of profit, 2005 ...................................................................... 259 Figure 35: Market share of Chinese OEMs and foreign JVs, 2000 and 2006 ..... 261 Figure 36: Top ten exporting companies, 2006 ................................................... 269 14 Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access List of tables List of tables Table 1: Timing of shifts in Korea's trade policy ................................................. 55 Table 2: Basic conditions of civil servants, 1994................................................ 98 Table 3: Technocrats' representation in high-level leadership, 1982-1997........ 99 Table 4: Monthly wage levels in enterprises and government organizations, 1994...................................................................................................... 102 Table 5: National S&T financing, personnel and output indicators, 1999-2006 ........................................................................................... 134 Table 6: Approval of foreign investment projects, 2004 .................................... 145 Table 7: Income tax rates concerning foreign enterprises in China's development zones, 2006.. .. .. ... ......... .... ... .. .. ..... ........ ... .. ... .... ........... 153 Table 8: National imports and exports of high-tech products, 1991-2005........ 156 Table 9: Credit funds balance sheet of financial institutions, 2006.... .. .. ........ 164 Table 10: Coordination and agreement across policy-making organizations ..... 193 Table 11: Government policy-making, 2007 ....................................................... 193 Table 12: Governance indicators, 2006 .............................................................. 195 Table 13: Taxes and fees, informal payments and bureaucratic interaction, 2006 .................................................................................................... 196 Table 14: China's WTO entry- implications for the auto industry ...................... 206 Table 15: Descriptive Statistics: Government agency's or official's assistance in identifying foreign investors in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ...................................................................................... 208 Table 16: Chi-Square Test: Government agency's or official's assistance in identifying foreign investors in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ...................................................................................... 208 Table 17: Descriptive Statistics: Introduction of new products into the plant by licensing technology from a foreign firm in the auto sector and in the residual sectors since 1998................................................................ 209 Table 18: Chi-Square Test: Introduction of new products into the plant by licensing technology from a foreign firm in the auto sector and in the residual sectors since 1998.......................................................... 209 15 Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access List of tables Table 19: Impact of WTO entry on the Chinese auto industry ............................ 214 Table 20: Descriptive Statistics: Days for consignments of a major input experienced before clearing local customs in the auto sector and the residual sectors, 2000 ................................................................... 219 Table 21: Independent Samples T-Test: Days for consignments of a major input experienced before clearing local customs in the auto sector and the residual sectors, 2000 ............................................................ 219 Table 22: Descriptive Statistics: Reasons for location of plant for companies in the auto sector, 2000 ...................................................................... 225 Table 23: Descriptive Statistics: Government agency's or official's assistance in identifying potential foreign suppliers in the auto sector in Beijing and Shanghai, 2000 ............................................................................ 235 Table 24: Chi-Square Test: Government agency's or official's assistance in identifying potential foreign suppliers in the auto sector in Beijing and Shanghai, 2000 ............................................................................ 235 Table 25: Amount of foreign capital actually used grouped by investment manner in Beijing and Shanghai, 2005 ............................................... 236 Table 26: Descriptive Statistics: Government agency's or official's assistance in locating foreign technology to license in the auto sector in Beijing and Shanghai, 2000 ............................................................................ 237 Table 27: Chi-Square Test: Government agency's or official's assistance in locating foreign technology to license in the auto sector in Beijing and Shanghai, 2000 ............................................................................ 237 Table 28: Descriptive Statistics: Contractual or long-standing relationship with the local university to perform R&D for the plant in the auto sector in Beijing and Shanghai, 2000 ................................................. 238 Table 29: Chi-Square Test: Contractual or long-standing relationship with the local university to perform R&D for the plant in the auto sector in Beijing and Shanghai, 2000 ................................................. 239 Table 30: Descriptive Statistics: Approximate shares of capital from different sources in the auto sector and the residual sectors (in percent), 2000 ................................................................... 242 Table 31: Independent Samples T-Test: Approximate shares of capital from different sources in the auto sector and the residual sectors (in percent), 2000 ................................................................................ 243 16 Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access List of tables Table 32: Descriptive Statistics: Firm's membership in a business association in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ........................... 246 Table 33: Chi-Square Test: Firm's membership in a business association in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ............................... 247 Table 34: Descriptive Statistics: Helping members to get market information is one function the most important business associations perform on a regular basis for companies in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ......................................................................... 247 Table 35: Chi-Square Test: Helping members to get market information is one function the most important business associations perform on a regular basis for companies in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ......................................................................... 248 Table 36: Descriptive Statistics: Representation of members' views to the government as one function the most important business association performs on a regular basis for companies in the auto sector and the residual sectors, 2000 ................................................................... 250 Table 37: Auto production and sales, 2006 ........................................................ 254 Table 38: Total revenue and total revenue per employee in the Chinese and Japanese auto industry, 2001-2004 .................................................... 260 Table 39: Passenger car sales by manufacturer, 2006 ...................................... 263 Table 40: Key figures of independent passenger car manufacturers, 2004 ....... 266 Table 41: Descriptive Statistics: Contractual or long-standing relationship with a government research institution to perform R&D for the plant in the auto sector and in the electronics sector, 2000 ......................... 266 Table 42: Chi-Square Test: Contractual or long-standing relationship with a government research institution to perform R&D for the plant in the auto sector and in the electronics sector, 2000 ............................. 267 Table 43: Descriptive Statistics: Contractual or long-standing relationship with private companies to perform R&D in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ................................................................... 268 Table 44: Tax rates of Chery Automobile Co., Ltd. and foreign-owned companies, 2005 ................................................................................. 270 17 Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access List of tables in the appendix List of tables in the appendix Table A45: Descriptive Statistics: Reasons for location of plant for companies in the residual sectors, 2000 ............................................................... 302 Table A46: Descriptive Statistics: Reasons for location of plant for companies in the electronics sector, 2000 ............................................................ 302 Table A47: Descriptive Statistics: Reason for location of manufacturing plant in the auto and the electronics sector, 2000 ........................................ 302 Table A48: Mann-Whitney U-Test: Reason for location of manufacturing plant in the auto and the electronics sector, 2000 ........................................ 302 Table A49: Descriptive Statistics: Government agency's or official's assistance in locating foreign technology to license in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ...................................................................303 Table A50: Chi-Square Test: Government agency's or official's assistance in locating foreign technology to license in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ......................................................................... 303 Table A51: Descriptive Statistics: Government agency's or official's assistance in identifying potential foreign clients in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ......................................................................... 304 Table A52: Chi-Square Test: Government agency's or official's assistance in identifying potential foreign clients in the auto sector and in the residual sectors, 2000 ......................................................................... 304 Table A53: Descriptive Statistics: Introduction of new products into the plant by licensing technology from a foreign firm in the auto sector and in the electronics sector since 1998.................................................... 304 Table A54: Chi-Square Test: Introduction of new products into the plant by licensing technology from a foreign firm in the auto sector and in the electronics sector since 1998 ........................................................ 305 Table A55: Descriptive Statistics: Introduction of new process improvements into the plant by licensing processes from a foreign firm in the auto sector and in the residual sectors since 1998 ..................................... 305 Table A56: Chi-Square Test: Introduction of new process improvements into the plant by licensing processes from a foreign firm in the auto sector and in the residual sectors since 1998 ..................................... 306 Table A57: Descriptive Statistics: New process improvement by licensing processes from foreign firms in the auto and electronics sector since 1998 ........................................................................................... 306 18 Nicola Meier - 978-3-631-75399-6 Downloaded from PubFactory at 01/11/2019 05:26:32AM via free access