areahandbookseries Armenia,Azerbaijan, andGeorgia countrystudies I Armenia,Azerbaijan, andGeorgia countrystudies FederalResearchDivision LibraryofCongress Editedby GlennE.Curtis ResearchCompleted March1994 94-45459 CIP On the cover: Cultural artifacts from Georgia (upper left) and Azerbaijan (right), and folk costume from Armenia First Edition, First Printing, 1995. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: country studies / Fed- eral Research Division, Library of Congress; edited by Glenn E. Curtis.-1st ed. p. cm.-(Area handbook series, ISSN 1057-5294) (DAPam ; 550-111) "Research completed March 1994." Includes bibliographical references (pp. 257-68) and index. ISBN 0-8444-0848-4 1. Transcaucasia-Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Curtis, Glenn E. (Glenn Eldon), 1946- . II. Library of Congress. Federal Research Division. III. Series. IV. Series: DA Pam; 550-111. DK509.A727 1995 947'.9-dc20 Headquarters, Department of the Army DA Pam 550-111 For sale by the Superintendent of Dowments, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 Foreword This volume is one in a continuing series of books prepared by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under the Country Studies/Area Handbook Program spon- sored by the Department of the Army. The last two pages of this book list the other published studies. Most books in the series deal with a particular foreign coun- try, describing and analyzing its political, economic, social, and national security systems and institutions, and examining the interrelationships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisci- plinary team of social scientists. The authors seek to provide a basic understanding of the observed society, striving for a dynamic rather than a static portrayal. Particular attention is devoted to the people who make up the society, their origins, dominant beliefs and values, their common interests and the issues on which they are divided, the nature and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and political order. The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States government position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from read- ers will be welcomed for use in future editions. Louis R. Mortimer Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540-5220 III Acknowledgments The authors are indebted to numerous individuals and organizations who gave their time, research materials, and expertise on affairs in the nations of the Transcaucasus to pro- vide data, perspective, and material support for this volume. The collection of accurate and current information was assisted greatly by the contributions of Professor StephenJones of Mount Holyoke College, Dee Ann Holisky, Betty Blair of Azerbaijan International, and Joseph Masih of the Armenian Assembly of America. The authors acknowledge the generosity of individuals and public and private agencies-including Azer- baijan International, the Embassy of Azerbaijan, and the White House Photo Office-who allowed their photographs to be used in this study. Thanks also go to Ralph K. Benesch, who oversees the Country Studies/Area Handbook Program for the Department. of the Army. In addition, the authors appreciate the advice and guidance of Sandra W. Meditz, Federal Research Division coor- dinator of the handbook series. Special thanks go to Marilyn L. Majeska, who supervised editing; Andrea T. Merrill, who man- aged production; David P. Cabitto, who designed the book cover and the illustrations on the title page of each chapter, provided graphics support, and, together with Thomas D. Hall, prepared the maps; and Helen Fedor, who obtained and orga- nized the photographs. The following individuals are gratefully acknowledged as well: Vincent Ercolano, who edited the chap- ters; Barbara Edgerton and Izella Watson, who did the word processing; Catherine Schwartzstein, who performed the final prepublication editorial review; Joan c. Cook, who compiled the index; and Stephen C. Cranton and David P. Cabitto, who prepared the camera-ready copy. v Contents Page Foreword ll1 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Preface xiii Table A. Chronology of Important Events xv Introduction xxiii Chapter 1. Armenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Glenn E. Curtis and Ronald G. Suny COUNTRY PROFILE 3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 The Ancient Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Early Christianity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 10 The Middle Ages 11 Between Russia and Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11 World War I and Its Consequences . . . .. 15 The Communist Era 17 Nagorno-Karabakh and Independence 20 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25 Topography and Drainage 26 Climate................................... .. 27 Environmental Problems " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27 POPULATION AND ETHNIC COMPOSITION . . . .. 29 Population Characteristics , 29 Ethnic Minorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31 LANGUAGE, RELIGION, AND CULTURE............... 32 Language .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Religion 33 The Armenian Diaspora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35 Culture '" 36 EDUCATION, HEALTH, AND WELFARE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 38 Education 38 Health.................................... 39 Social Welfare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41 VB THE ECONOMY 41 Modern Economic History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 42 Natural Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 44 Agriculture 44 Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45 Energy 46 Postcommunist Economic Reform " 48 Labor and the Standard of Living . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51 The National Financial Structure 52 Transportation and Telecommunications 53 Foreig~Trade 56 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS 57 Par liament 58 The Presidency 59 State Administrative Bodies 59 The Judiciary 60 The Constitution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 60 Local(;overnment 61 Political Parties 61 Human Rights 62 The Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 63 FOREIGN RELATIONS 64 Azerbaijan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64 (;eorgia, Iran, and Turkey 65 The Commonwealth of Independent States. . . . . . .. 67 The United States. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68 NATIONAL SECURITY 70 (;eopolitical Situation 70 The Military 72 Internal Security 76 Crime.......................................... 77 Prisons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77 Chapter 2. Azerbaijan 79 James Nichol COUNTRY PROFILE 81 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 87 Early History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87 Within the Russian Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89 Within the Soviet Union 91 Mter Communist Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93 viii PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99 Topography and Drainage 99 Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Environmental Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 POPULATION AND ETHNIC COMPOSITION.......... 101 Population Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 The Role of Women 103 Smaller Ethnic Minorities 103 LANGUAGE, RELIGION, AND CULTURE " . . . . . . . 104 Language '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Religion 106 The Arts 107 The Cultural Renaissance 109 EDUCATION, HEALTH, AND WELFARE " . . . . . . . . . . . . . III Education III Health. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113 Social Welfare. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 THE ECONOMY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 The Work Force. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Economic Dislocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Agriculture 117 Industry 119 Energy 119 Economic Reform '" 122 Foreign Trade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Transportation and Telecommunications. . . . . . . . 126 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 The Appearance of Opposition Parties 129 Legislative Politics 131 The Presidential Election of 1992 131 The Coup of June 1993 132 Aliyev and the Presidential Election of October 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 The Constitution 135 The Court System 136 Human Rights and the Media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 FOREIGN RELATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 The Foreign Policy Establishment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 Post-Soviet Diplomacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Relations with Former Soviet Republics . . . . . . . . . . 140 ix NATIONAL SECURIlY '" 141 Forming a National Defense Force. .. .. .. 141 Russian Troop Withdrawal. " , . . .. .. 142 Force Levels and Performance 143 Supply and Budgeting 144 Aliyev's National Security Reform. . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. 145 Crime and Crime Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 146 Chapter 3. Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149 Darrell Slider COUNTRY PROFILE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 151 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 157 Early History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. 157 Within the Russian Empire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 159 Within the Soviet Union 162 Mter Communist Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 166 Threats of Fragmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 171 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 175 Topography 175 Climate 176 Environmental Issues " 177 POPULATION AND ETHNIC COMPOSITION. . . . . . . . . .. 177 Population Characteristics 177 Ethnic Minorities 178 LANGUAGE, RELIGION, AND CULTURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181 Language 181 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182 The Arts. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 183 EDUCATION, HEALTH, AND WELFARE 186 Education 186 Health " , . '" ., .. , " . .. 187 Social Security 189 THE ECONOMY 190 Conditions in the Soviet System 190 Obstacles to Development 191 The Underground Economy.................... 192 Wages and Prices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 192 Banking, the Budget, and the Currency... .. .. .. 194 Industry " 195 Energy Resources 196 Agriculture 198 x Transportation and Telecommunications . . . . . . . . 199 Economic Reform 203 Foreign Trade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 206 Establishing Democratic Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . .. 206 The 1990 Election 208 The Gamsakhurdia Government 208 Gamsakhurdia's Ouster and Its Mtermath . . . . . . . . 209 New Parties and Shevardnadze's Return 210 The Election of 1992 " 210 Formation of the Shevardnadze Government. . . .. 213 The Judicial System , . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. .. 216 The Constitution 218 Human Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 The Media " . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. 219 FOREIGN RELATIONS............................... 219 The Soviet and Gamsakhurdia Periods. . . . . . . . . .. 220 The Foreign Policy Establishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 221 Revived Contacts in 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 221 Relations with Neighboring Countries 222 NATIONAL SECURITY , . . . 226 The Military Establishment ,. 226 The Russian Presence , . 227 Draft Policy 227 Arms Supply 228 Internal Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 Civilian National Security Organization. . . . . . . . .. 229 Crime........................................ 229 Long-Term Security. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 230 Appendix. Tables 231 Bibliography .. .. . . .. . . .. .. .. . . .. . . .. .. .. .. . . .. .. 257 Glossary 269 fudex 273 Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 List of Figures 1 Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Geographic Setting, 1994.................................... XXll xi xii 2 Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: Topography and Drainage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xxii 3 Nagorno-Karabakh, 1994 xxvi 4 Armenia, 1994 : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 5 The Empire ofTigran the Great, ca. 65 B.C. . . . . . . . . . 12 6 Ethnic Groups in Armenia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 7 Transportation System of Armenia, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 8 Azerbaijan, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86' 9 Ethnic Groups in Azerbaijan 104 10 Transportation System of Azerbaijan, 1994 .. . . . . . . .. 128 11 Georgia, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 156 12 The Georgian Empire of Queen Tamar, ca. 1200. . . .. 160 13 Georgia in the Sixteenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161 14 Ethnic Groups in Georgia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 180 15 Transportation System of Georgia, 1994 202 Preface At theendof1991,theformalliquidationoftheSoviet Unionwasthesurprisinglyswiftresultofpartiallyhidden decrepitudeandcentrifugalforceswithinthatempire.Ofthe fifteen"fleW" states thatemergedfromtheprocess,manyhad beenindependentpoliticalentitiesatsometimeinthepast. Asidefromtheircoverageinthe1991SovietUnion:ACountry Study,nonehadreceivedindividualtreatmentinthisseries, however.Armenia,Azerbazjan,andGeorgia:CountryStudiesisthe firstinanewsubseriesdescribingthefifteenpost-Sovietrepub- lics,bothastheyexistedbeforeandduringtheSovieteraand astheyhavedevelopedsince1991. ThisvolumecoversArme- nia,Azerbaijan,andGeorgia,thethreesmallnationsgrouped aroundtheCaucasusmountainrangeeastoftheBlackSea. Themarkedrelaxationofinformationrestrictions,which beganinthelate1980sandacceleratedafter1991,allowsthe reportingofnearlycompletedataoneveryaspectoflifeinthe threecountries.Scholarlyarticlesandperiodicalreportshave beenespeciallyhelpfulinaccountingfortheyearsofindepen- denceinthe1990s.Theauthorshavedescribedthehistorical, political,andsocialbackgroundsofthecountriesastheback- groundfortheircurrentportraits.Ineachcase,theauthors' goalwastoprovideacompact,accessible,andobjectivetreat- mentoffivemaintopics:historicalbackground,thesociety and itsenvironment,theeconomy,governmentandpolitics,and nationalsecurity. Inallcases,personalnameshavebeentransliteratedfrom thevernacularlanguagesaccordingtostandardpractice.Place- namesarerenderedintheformapprovedbythe UnitedStates BoardonGeographicNames,whenavailable.Becauseinmany casestheboardhadnotyetappliedvernacular tablesintrans- literatingofficialplace-namesatthetimeofprinting,themost recentSoviet-eraformshavebeenusedinthisvolume.Conven- tionalinternationalvariants,suchasMoscow,areusedwhen appropriate.Organizationscommonlyknownbytheiracro- nyms(suchasIMF—InternationalMonetaryFund)are intro- ducedbytheirfullnames.Autonomousrepublicsand autonomousregions,suchastheNakhichevanAutonomous Republic,theSouthOssetianAutonomousRegion,andthe AbkhazianAutonomousRepublic,areintroducedintheirfull xiii form(before1991thesealsoincludedthephrase"Soviet Socialist"),andsubsequentlyreferredtobyshorterforms (Nakhichevan,SouthOssetia,andAbkhazia,respectively). Measurementsaregiveninthemetricsystem;aconversion tableisprovidedintheAppendix.Achronologyisprovidedat thebeginningofthebook,combiningsignificanthistorical eventsofthethreecountries.Toamplif'pointsinthetextof thechapters,tablesintheAppendixprovidestatisticson aspectsofthesocietiesandtheeconomiesofthecountries. Thebodyofthetextreflectsinformationavailableasof March1994.Certainotherportionsofthetext,however,have beenupdated.TheIntroductiondiscussessignificantevents andtrendsthathaveoccurredsincethecompletionof research;theCountryProfilesincludeupdatedinformationas available;andtheBibliographylistsrecentlypublishedsources thoughttobeparticularlyhelpfultothereader. xiv TableA.ChronologyofImportantEvents Period Description EARLYHISTORY 95—55B.C ArmenianEmpirereachesgreatestsizeandinfluenceunderTigran theGreat. 66B.C. RomanscompleteconquestofCaucasusMountainsregion,includ- ingGeorgiankingdomofEarth-Iberia. 30B.C. RomansconquerArmenianEmpire. A.D.100—300 RomansannexAzerbaijanandnameitAlbania. Ca.310 TiridatesHIacceptsChristianityfortheArmenianpeople. 330 KingMarianIIIofKardi-IberiaacceptsChristianityfortheCeor- gianpeople. FIFFH—SEVENTH FirstgoldenageofArmenianculture. CENTURIES Ca.600 FourcenturiesofArabcontrolofAzerbajanbegin,introducing Islaminseventhcentury. 645 ArabscaptureTbilisi. 653 ByzantineEmpirecedesArmeniatoArabs. NINTH-TENTH CENTURIES 806 ArabsinstallBagratidfmilytogovernArmenia. 813 ArmenianprinceAshotIbegins1,000yearsofruleinGeorgiaby BagratidDynasty. 862—977 SecondgoldenageofArmenianculture,underAshotIandAshot HI. ELEVENTH— ByzantineGreeksinvadeArmeniafromwest,SeljukTurksfrom FOURTEENTH east;TurkishgroupswrestpoliticalcontrolofAzerbaijanfrom CENTURIES Arabs,introducingTurkishlanguageandculture. 1099—1125 DavidIVtheBuilderestablishesexpandedGeorgianEmpireand beginsgoldenageofGeorgia. xv Period Description 1000—late1200s GoldenageofAzerbaijaniliteratureandarchitecture. 1 lOOs—lSOOs CilicianArmenianandGeorgianarmiesaidEuropeanarmiesin CrusadestolimitMuslimcontrolofHolyLand. 1200—1400 MongolstwiceinvadeAzerbaijan,establishingtemporarydynasties. 1375 CilicianArmeniaconqueredbyMamlukTurks. 1386 Timur(Tamerlane)sacksThilisi,endingGeorgianEmpire FWFEENTHCEN- MostofmodernArmenia,Azerbaijan,andGeorgiabecomepartof TURY OttomanEmpire. SIXTEENTHCEN- TURY 1501 AzerbaijaniSafavidDynastybeginsrulebyPersianEmpire. 1553 OttomanTurksandPersiansdivideGeorgiabetweenthem. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY Ca.1700 RussiabeginsmovingintonorthernAzerbaijanasPersianEmpire weakens. 1762 HerekleHreuniteseasternGeorgianregionsinkingdomofKartli- Kakhetia. NINETEENTH CENTURY 1801 AfterHerekleII'sappealforaid,RussianEmpireabolishesBagratid DynastyandbeginsannexationofGeorgia. 1811 GeorgianOrthodoxChurchlosesautocephalousstatusinRussifica- tionprocess. 1813 TreatyofGulistanofficiallydividesAzerbaijanintoRussian(north- ern)andPersian(southern)spheres. 1828 TreatyofTurkmanchayawardsNakhichevanand areaaroundEre- van toRussia,strengtheningRussiancontrolofTranscaucasus andbeginningperiodofmodernizationandsecurity. 1872 OilindustryestablishedaroundBaku,beginningrapidexpansion. xv1 Period Description 1878 ArmenianquestionemergesatCongressofBerlin;dispositionof ArmeniabecomesongoingEuropeanissue. 1891 FirstArmenianrevolutionarypartyformed. 1895 Massacreof300,000ArmeniansubjectsbyOttomanTurks. TWENTIETH CENTURY ca.1900 RadicalpoliticalorganizationsbegintoforminAzerbaijan. 1908 YoungTurkstakeovergovernmentofOttomanEmpirewithreform agenda,supportedbyArmenianpopulation. 1915 YoungTurksmassacre600,000to2millionArmenians;mostsurvi- vorsleaveeasternAnatolia. 1917 Armenia,Azerbaijan,andGeorgiaformindependentTranscauca- Sianfederation.TsarNicholasIIabdicatesRussianthrone;Bol- shevikstakepowerinRussia. 1918 IndependentArmenian,Azerbaijani,andGeorgianstatesemerge fromdefeatofOttomanEmpireinWorldWarI. 1920 RedArmyinvadesAzerbaijanandforcesArmeniatoacceptcommu- nist-dominatedgovernment. 1921 RedArmyinvadesGeorgiaanddrivesoutZhordaniagovernment. 1922 TranscaucasianSovietFederatedSocialistRepubliccombinesArme- nia,Azerbaijan,andGeorgiaassinglerepublicwithinSoviet Union. 1936 Armenia,Azerbaijan,andGeorgiabecomeseparaterepublics withinSovietUnion. 1936—37 PurgesunderpoliticalcommissarLavrentiBeriareachtheirpeakin Armenia,Azerbaijan,andGeorgia. 1943 AutonomyrestoredtoGeorgianOrthodoxChurch. 1946 WesternpowersforceSovietUniontoabandonAutonomousGov- ernmentofAzerbaijan,formedin1945afterSovietoccupationof northernIran. 1959 NikitaS.KhrushchevpurgesAzerbaijaniCommunistParty. xvii Period Description 1969 HeydarAliyevnamedheadofAzerbaijaniCommunistParty. Ca.1970 ZviadGamsakhurdiabeginsorganizingdissidentGeorgiannational- ists. 1972 EduardShevardnadzenamedfirstsecretaryofGeorgianCommu- nistParty. 1974 MoscowinstallsregimeofKarenDemirchianinArmeniatoend partycorruption;regimelaterremovedforcorruption. 1978 MassdemonstrationspreventMoscowfrommakingRussiananoffi- ciallanguageofGeorgia. 1982 AliyevofAzerbaijannamedfullmemberofPolitburoofCommunist PartyoftheSovietUnion. 1985 ShevardnadzenamedministerofforeignaffairsofSovietUnion andleavespostasfirstsecretaryofGeorgianCommunistParty. Late1980s MikhailS.Gorbachevinitiatespoliciesofglasnostandperestroika throughoutSovietUnion. 1988 ArmeniannationalistmovementrevivedbyKarabakhandcorrup- tionconcerns. February Nagorno-Xarabakhgovernmentvotestounifythatautonomous regionofAzerbaijanwithArmenia. December DisastrousearthquakeinnorthernArmeniaheavilydamagesLeni- nakan(nowGyumri). 1989April SoviettroopskillGeorgianciviliandemonstratorsinThilisi,radical- izingGeorgianpublicopinion. Spring MassdemonstrationsinArmeniaachievereleaseofKarabakhCom- mitteearrestedbySovietstoquellnationalistmovement. September AzerbaijanbeginsblockadeofArmenianfuelandsupplylinesover Xarabskhissue. Fail AzerbaijanioppositionpartiesleadmassprotestsagainstSovietrule; nationalsovereigntyofficiallyproclaimed. November Nagorno-I<arabakhNationalCouncildeclaresunificationof Nagorno-KarabakhwithArmenia. 1990January MoscowsendstroopstoAzerbaijan.nominallytostemviolence xviii Penod Descnption againstArmeniansoverXarabakh Spring LevonTer-PetrosianofArmenianPannationalMovementchosen chairmanofArmenianSupremeSoviet. October InfirstmultipartyelectionheldinGeorgia,Gamsakhurdia'sopposi- tionistpartycrushescommunists;Gamsakhurdianamedpresi- dent. 1991January GeorgianforcesinvadeSouthOssetiainresponsetoindependence movementthere;fightingcontinuesallyear;Soviettroopsinvade Azerbaijan,ostensiblytohaltanti-Armenianpogroms. April Afterreferendumapproval,GeorgianparliamentdeclaresGeorgia - independent ofSovietUnion. May GamsakhurdiabecomesfirstpresidentofGeorgia.electeddirectly inmultipartyelection. August AttemptedcoupagainstGorbachevinMoscowfails. September Armenianvotersapprovenationalindependence. October AzerbaijanireferendumdeclaresAzerbaijanindependentofSoviet Union;Ter-PetrosianelectedpresidentofArmenia. December ArmeniansinNagorno-Xarabakhdeclareindependentstateas fightingtherecontinues;SovietUnionofficiallydissolved. 1992January GamsakhurdiadrivenfromGeorgiaintoexilebyoppositionforces. March ShevardnadzereturnstoTbilisiandformsnewgovernment. Spring ArmenianforcesoccupyLachincorridorlinkingNagorno-Kara- bakhtoArmenia. June AbulfazElchibeyelectedpresidentofAzerbaijanandformsfirst postcommunistgovernmentthere. July Cease-firemediatedbyRussia'sPresidentYeltsininSouthOssetia. October ParliamentaryelectionheldinGeorgia;Shevardnszdereceives overwhelmingsupport. Fall FightingbeginsbetweenAbkhszianindependenceforcesandGeor- gianforces;large-scalerefugeedisplacementcontinuesthrough nexttwoyears. xix