Austerity and Environment: A Greek Tragedy - Skander Manaa

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Austerity and Environment: A Greek Tragedy An analysis of the interplay between the austerity crisis and worsening environmental conditions in Greece. Skander Manaa Department of Politics, Philosophy & Religion Lancaster University May 2020 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my supervisor Julie Hearn for her wisdom, direction and support, as well as the entirety of the Lancaster PPR staff for answering random questions related to my dissertation, giving me their valuable opinions or just being some of the most supportive staff I’ve had the chance to work with. I would also like to give my biggest, warmest thanks to my friends for being there for me. Claudia, Jamie, Timmy, Pablo and Ellie in particular for their continued support in the creation of this paper. Special regards go to the best group on campus: Philosophy Society. I owe particular thanks to Kostas for the effort and time spent translating Greek documents, as well as Rod Modell and ChilledCow for making the best music to write to. Furthermore, I want to thank the activists and journalists that continually work to push climate change to the forefront of our discussions, but especially I want to thank the scientists. From data analysts and reviewers to every other kind of scientist that work, almost always out of the public spotlight, on the biggest threat humanity has ever faced. None seem to be treated the way they should be, as heroes. Thank you for your work. Finally, I’d like to thank Maman & Papa. My siblings and my grandparents. Everyone in my family and circles of friends who have helped me reach the end of this degree. I love you all. Merci 2 Abstract Throughout the past decade, environmental affairs have steadily risen in the ranks of public concerns, to find a spot amongst the crucial issues of our age. This research project aims to understand and present the interplay between these two matters, more specifically in a country that has recently been plagued by both environmental and economic troubles: Greece. Analysing government and NGO statistics, as well as secondary literature on the subject, has shown a potential link between the two matters, more specifically in areas such as deforestation, floods and air pollution. Early findings seem to point at a reciprocal relationship between austerity and worsening environmental conditions. As institutions, government programs and social cohesion become the targets of declining budgets, Greek ecosystems suffer from deteriorating care and increased exploitation, which in turn seem to harm the Greek economy by way of a vicious cycle. This project’s goal is to illuminate the effects of austerity economic policies on people and the environment, so as to better understand the potential tools and pitfalls awaiting us in our perilous fight against climate change worldwide. Word Count: 9,389 3 Table of Contents Introduction…………………………………………………………………………. 5 1.0 The Greek Financial and Austerity Crisis……………………………………… 7 1.1 Before the Crash……………………………………………………….. 7 1.2 The Troika & Bailout #1………………………………………….……. 8 1.3 Bailout #2………………………………………………………….…… 11 1.4 Austerity Around the World……………………………….…………… 12 2.0 The Environmental Crisis…………………………………………………….... 13 2.1 Contextualising the Crisis…………………………………………….... 13 2.2 Recent Effects of Climate Change……………………………………... 15 2.3 Greek Environment and Climate………………………………………. 16 3.0 Intersectionality of Crises…………………………………………………….... 17 3.1 Note on Scope and Method……………………………………………. 17 3.2 Fauna and Flora………………………………………………………… 18 3.2.1 Deforestation…………………………………………………. 19 3.2.2 Wildlife……………………………………………………..... 22 3.3 Pollution………………………………………………………………... 24 3.3.1 Air……………………………………………………………. 24 3.3.2 Water…………………………………………………………. 26 3.3.3 Waste…………………………………………………………. 27 3.4 Disasters………………………………………………………………... 28 3.5 The Human/Nature Rift………………………………………………... 30 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………….. 33 Annex 1…....……………………………………………………………………....... 34 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………... 35 4 Introduction On April 4th, 2012, Dimitris Christoulas, a 77-year-old pharmacist woke up and walked down to Syntagma Square, one of Athens’ central plazas. Christoulas was a lifelong leftist, a community militant and most important of all, he was described by all that knew him as a good man. On that April morning, Christoulas shot himself on Syntagma Square. In a single day, Christoulas went from a solitary member of the community appearing at political rallies and taking care of his Athens pharmacy, to being the symbol of the anti-austerity movement in Greece. Christoulas’ martyrdom fuelled years of bitter protests and conflict between the Greek people and their government. Christoulas’ death was a turning point for me as I learned of the visceral consequences economic policies can have on people’s livelihoods1. While Greece fought its battle with the Troika, another crisis crept towards, not just Greece, but the whole world: climate change. There now exists an overwhelming body of evidence proving that we are living through and directly affecting the most dangerous threat humanity has faced. A truly existential issue. Countries around the world are still figuring out how they want to face the crisis, but time is running out: emissions must be lowered by substantial amounts or humanity will face the consequences of runaway climate change. And while many are eager to solve the crisis, the tools we use to fight this battle will determine whether we succeed in saving our planet from ourselves, or let it crumble under the weight of our presence. One such tool, floated around as a potential necessity, is austerity. Even after the Greek crisis, austerity remained as mainstream economic policy. In Greece, Christoulas’ death, as well as what ensued in the years to follow, had shown the world how devastating austerity could be on a human level. However, its effects on the environment were still under- studied. In this paper, I discuss the effects of austerity measures, taken between the years 2010-2012 with the First and Second Economic Adjustment Programmes, on Greece’s environment. In the first chapter I contextualise the Greek financial and Austerity crisis through Greece’s recent economic history as well as by briefly situating Greece’s crisis within the broader history of austerity. The second chapter of this paper contextualises the 1 Smith, H., “Greece Suicide: Tributes for Retired Pharmacist”, (The Guardian, April 2012), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/apr/05/greece-suicide-tributes-retired-pharmacist 5 Environmental Crisis by outlining its causes and effects, as well as briefly situating Greece within it. Finally, chapter three analyses the interplay between austerity measures and their impact on specific parts of the Greek environment. My analysis delves into the effects of austerity measures taken around four fields, namely biodiversity, which I limit to land use, forests and wildlife, pollution from the air, water and waste and then disasters which focus heavily on fires. The final section of chapter three delves into the more philosophical changes that have occurred in the Human/Nature relationship at the policy level. Due to concerns of brevity and accuracy, this paper will only engage with the austerity policies undertaken during the period of the first and second Greek programmes2. Additionally, particular emphasis will be placed on the years 2012-2013, in an effort to find signs of short-term, more direct effects of austerity policies. 2 The years analysed by this paper will often be referred to as “the austerity years”, “the years of austerity”, “the austerity period” or related alternatives. 6 1. The Greek Financial and Austerity Crisis 1.1. Before the Crash The Greek economy has, throughout the past decades, found itself on a rollercoaster ride through unpredictable hills and ravines. Considering the end of the military dictatorship as our starting point, Greece was accepted into the European Community (EC) – now called the European Union – in 1981 with remarkably lenient entry requirements3. Before joining the EC, the Greek state struggled to shake off the remnants of its “hegemonic position4” ; nearly a fifth of the population was directly employed by the public sector, enormous debts were acquired from spending sprees and the government maintained a controlling hand on the economy. Widespread corruption, mismanagement and a “clientelistic use5” of the financial sector for political gains made it difficult for Greece to join the later formed European Monetary Union ; the 1980s were a period of economic stagnation for Greece, the ongoing depression decimated employment and impaired labour productivity6, resulting in a devalued Drachma, diminished competitiveness and gargantuan debts that would serve as a foundation for the Greece we know today. In the early 1990s, the Greek government decided to sign the Maastricht Treaty, aiming to later on join the European single currency7. To meet the required criteria, Greece submitted a convergence program to plot out its journey from the chaotic mess it was perceived to be in, towards a more “Europeanised” economy. Throughout the 90s, Greece reformed its economy and political structures in various ways, effectively democratising and liberalising itself at the behest of the EU, to ensure it would be accepted by its neighbours as one of their own8. During this process however, as well as its entry into the euro in 2001, Greece was not in fact being truthful about its economic statistics. Reports demonstrate how Greece had been manipulating its own data from as early as before the Maastricht Treaty, to appear 3 Ioakimidis, P.C., “The Europeanization of Greece: An Overall Assessment”, (South European Society and Politics, December 2000) page 76. 4 Ibid, page 76. 5 Ibid, page 77 6 Romei, V., “Greece and the EU: a brief (economic) history in charts”, (Financial Times, August 2015), https://www.ft.com/content/9436dfa7-cd88-3daa-a844-56da4b27ec54#comments-anchor 7 Ibid. 8 Ioakimidis, P.C., “The Europeanization of Greece: An Overall Assessment”, (South European Society and Politics, December 2000) page 79 7 stronger and healthier than it was9. Deceptive tricks were used such as having the government buy shares from the failing state-owned railway company, in order to count it “not as expenditure, but as a financial transaction10”, which would then not materialise on the balance sheets. As the new millennium came around, the Greek governments’ charade came to light and very slowly, experts and institutions began to realise the extent of the problem11: For much of the 1990s-2000s, Greece’s statistical data was utterly unreliable, thus preventing a clear analysis of the state of its economy12. A final straw, however, progressively made its way onto the camel’s back during the 2000s: predatory lending. Banks from financially stronger European states like Germany and France quickly realised that if countries like Greece were in grave need to borrow, and that its currency as well as its debt was backed up by the European Central Bank (ECB), then they had found themselves a debtor, famished for loans and a safety net within the ECB that would see their loans repaid no matter the outcome13. “Greece in the 2000-2007 period offers a dramatic example of unsustainable, boom-based growth acceleration, pursued under weakening systemic growth forces14”. It is upon these foundations of weak competitiveness, low labour productivity, unmanageable borrowing and untrustworthy statistics that Greece entered the 2008 global financial crisis15. 1.2 The Troika and Bailout #1 . In 2009, PASOK, the centre-left Greek party wins national elections to take their rivals, New Democracy, a centre-right party, out of government16. Months later, PASOK reveal that past governments had been manipulating official statistics for 9 Little, A., “How ‘magic’ made Greek debt disappear before it joined the euro”, (BBC News, February 2012), https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-16834815 10 Ibid. 11 Barber, T., “Greece condemned for falsifying data”, (Financial Times, Brussels, January 2010), https://www.ft.com/content/33b0a48c-ff7e-11de-8f53-00144feabdc0 12 Sarafidis, V., “The tragedy of Greek statistics”, (Ekathimerini, Athens, October 2018), http://www.ekathimerini.com/233883/article/ekathimerini/comment/the-tragedy-of-greek-statistics 13 Little, A., “How ‘magic’ made Greek debt disappear before it joined the euro”, (BBC News, February 2012), https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-16834815 14 Economic Growth in the EU, Lisbon council, 16/10/2013 Page 20 15 Oldani, C., “The Management of Greek Sovereign Risk”, (The IUP Journal of Financial Risk Management, January 2012), page 2. 16 Fouskas, V. & Dimoulas, C., “Greece, Financialization and the EU: The Political Economy of Debt and Destruction”, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), page xix. 8 years, and attempt to give financial authorities reassessed, truthful data concerning Greece’s debt, growth and balance sheets. This led to a revised budget deficit17, exposing the 2009 budget deficit as being much more important than the already alarming 6.7% of GDP. The real figure sat at a hefty 15.4% of GDP, the sight of which sent shocks throughout the financial markets of the world. Within months of the revelations, an emergency response group made up of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), European Central Bank (ECB) and the European Commission (EC) had formed, nicknamed by many as the “Troika”. Greece needed financial support and fast, as it continued to haemorrhage money. After months of negotiations, in May 2010, the Troika released a statement outlining an agreement between Greece and the authorities for a bailout totalling 110 billion euros. The EAP outlines levels of public debt reaching more than 115% of GDP in 200918, as well as low productivity levels and a government deficit in the double digits. Its objectives are set out to be an immediate containment/control of the finances, reassurance of the markets, as well as fixing the severe liquidity needs of the Greek banking system. Throughout the document are mentions of Greece’s need for more “flexible” and more “efficient” labour markets, coupled with a plan to restructure the economy towards an export-led growth model by restoring competitiveness19. The rhetoric present in the Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) and the EAP paints a story of necessary sacrifices, urgency and paternalist counsel for an ailment established to be caused by Greek senselessness. Arguably more crucial than the tone of the documents however, are the economic objectives set out throughout. The EAP considers that with its advice, bailout money and supervision, the Greek economy should have no problem putting into practice the 5-year plan it constructed. According to the Troika, Greece will need to improve their primary balance “from a deficit of 8.5% of GDP in 2009 to a surplus of just below 6% 17 Ozturk, S. & Sozdemir, A., “Effects of Global Financial Crisis on Greece Economy”, (Procedia Economics and Finance, 2015), Volume 23, page 574. 18 Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, May 2010),. N°61, page 6 19 Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, May 2010),. N°61, page 10 9 GDP2021”, and its net external debt was expected to decline after peaking in 2013 at 120% GDP. These goals, to restore Greek competitiveness, productivity and stability were to become Greece’s own. But nothing is free, certainly not a rescue package this big. In return, the Troika demanded a number of changes be made to the Greek economy, with complete oversight by authorities. If they were going to invest this much money into Greece, Troika leaders wanted to be sure the bailout would not be squandered22. In a statement from Dominique Strauss-Kahn, the then-Managing Director of the IMF23, Greece is portrayed as an ailing patient that must make difficult sacrifices for the health of its economy, but assured that whatever measures are taken, they will be fair to the most vulnerable and that prosperity will be right around the corner if it follows the demands set out in the Economic Adjustment Program (SAP). Austerity measures, meant to reduce government spending and redress the Greek budget deficit by about 20% of GDP within 5 years, an act other European countries could only ever dream of, were the price to pay for 110 Billion Euros. Measures24 included things like cuts to public-sector bonuses, to pensions, public wages and increasing the retirement age. The pension reforms were seen by Troika officials to be the most important of all, alongside broadening the scope of the formal economy and overcoming Greece’s “competitiveness issue25”. Despite widespread opposition to the measures, the Greek government held steadfast and continued passing a stream of austerity budgets, believing the bailout money and economic oversight from the Troika would help Greece weather the storm. 20 Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, May 2010),. N°61, page 12 21 As discussed in previous pages, the real statistics put Greece’s deficit at 15.4% in 2009 rather than 8.5%, arguably making these recommendations even more unreasonable. 22 Ozturk, S. & Sozdemir, A., “Effects of Global Financial Crisis on Greece Economy”, (Procedia Economics and Finance, 2015), Volume 23, page 574. 23 Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “Euro area and IMF agreement on financial support programme for Greece”, (EU Commission, May 2010), https://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/articles/eu_economic_situation/2010-05-03-statement-commissioner- rehn-imf-on-greece_en.htm 24 Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, May 2010),. N°61, page 15 25 Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, May 2010),. N°61, page 20 10 1.3 Bailout #2 On February 21st, 2012, a week or so after a demonstration of more than 80,000 anti-austerity protesters, the Greek government agrees to a second bailout deal26. The 2nd bailout, worth around 130 billion euros, was agreed by Troika officials and the Papademos government to be ultimately necessary. The first economic adjustment programme had not given financiers positive results and unilaterally impoverished Greece27. Thus, the Troika had identified two choices: either let Greece go bankrupt, or continue pumping cash into the machine until it worked. As the country’s unemployment soared, public debt reached 172.1% in 2011, an increase of about 17% from the previous year28. In spite of this, the Troika doubled down and placed their bets on stronger austerity measures through a second EAP. “Implementation risks will remain very high. The success of the second programme depends chiefly on Greece29” wrote the Troika. In short, the second bailout programme included a ‘haircut’, or voluntary devaluation, of more than 50% to the debt Greece had already amassed from the programe. This noteworthy step in the direction of debt forgiveness could however be argued to have been dwarfed by the increased demands for austerity30. Greece had to, once again, reduce pensions, minimum wage, contract the public sector and deregulate goods and services. This ‘liberalisation’ of the economy was characteristic of the Troika, and in-line with their previous demands from the first EAP, as a continuation of austerity31. While Greece suffered under the weight of the debt it had accrued, with notices of late payments to international authorities stacking up, the Troika and Greek government had agreed to press on with their strategy. In fine, months after the third austerity package passes, unemployment still hovered at around 25%, with the last financial quarter of the year 26 Fouskas, V. & Dimoulas, C., “Greece, Financialization and the EU: The Political Economy of Debt and Destruction”, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), page xx 27 Spiegel, P. & Barker, A., “Eurozone agrees second Greek bail-out”, (Financial Times, Brussels, February 2012), https://www.ft.com/content/a3445f64-5c4c-11e1-911f-00144feabdc0 28 Eurostat, “General Government Gross Debt – Annual Data”, (EuroStat, 2020), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=teina225&plugin=1 29 European Commission, “The Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, March 2012), N°94, Summary for non-specialists, page 1. 30 International Monetary Fund, “Request for Extended Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility”, (IMF, March 2012), pages 2-9 31 European Commission, “The Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, March 2012), N°94. 11 showing a +7% contraction of the economy, and political parties at all extremes of the political spectrum, notably the neo-nazi party Golden Dawn, began earning increasing support32. 1.4 Austerity Around the World While Greece’s first and second bailout failed in reaching almost all of their essential targets3334, this was not the first time a country endured austerity. It could be said that, in some sense, almost every country in the world has, at one time, adopted a form of austerity. In the words of Nobel laureate Paul Krugman, austerity is often used as “cover for an alternative agenda, namely and attempt to reduce the overall size of government35”. From the United Kingdom to Brazil, austerity has been used as a tool to fight deficit. The IMF has worked for decades to advance structural adjustment programmes and deficit-cutting instruments throughout the world, with few success stories. Yet in 2012 already, the Chief Economist of the IMF, Olivier Blanchard, issued a statement36 confirming what many economists such as Krugman already believed: austerity was causing more damage than good. “The increase in inequality engendered by financial openness and austerity might itself undercut growth37”, warned the IMF in 2016. Originally thought-up as a part of neoliberalism, austerity has often been found to hit the poorest first and hardest38. As social safety nets are cut, wages lowered and state spending diminished, citizens of austerity-ridden nations suffer from an absent government and a fearful private sector. The debate continues still today, as some believe it to be the best way to reduce government deficit when it has 32 Fouskas, V. & Dimoulas, C., “Greece, Financialization and the EU: The Political Economy of Debt and Destruction”, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), page xxi 33 For example, deficit as % of GDP in 2014 stood at twice the 2 nd EAP target amount. 34 OECD, “Country Fact Sheet: Greece”, (OECD, 2015), https://www.oecd.org/gov/Greece.pdf 35 Krugman, P., “The Austerity Delusion”, (The Guardian, April 2015), https://www.theguardian.com/business/ng-interactive/2015/apr/29/the-austerity-delusion 36 Plumer, B., “IMF: Austerity is much worse for the economy than we thought”, (The Washington Post, October 2012), https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2012/10/12/imf-austerity-is-much-worse-for- the-economy-than-we-thought/?arc404=true 37 Elliott, L., “Austerity policies do more harm than good, IMF study concludes”, (The Guardian, May 2016), https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/may/27/austerity-policies-do-more-harm-than-good-imf-study- concludes 38 Ridge, T., “‘We are All in This Together’? The Hidden Costs of Poverty, Recession and Austerity Policies on Britain's Poorest Children”, (Children and Society, 2013), Volume 27, page 407 12 reached unmanageable levels, while others see it as misguided atrophy with little chance for positive outcomes. 2. The Environmental Crisis 2.1 Contextualising the Crisis The second crisis examined throughout this essay is one of global proportions. Unlike the Greek financial and austerity crisis where the full impact was felt by a single nation, the environmental crisis does not discriminate. Every country is situated in one or more ecosystems, benefits from natural resources and lives, to some degree, in harmony with the biosphere it occupies. To borrow Karl Marx’s holistic perspective: “nature is man’s inorganic body39”. As such, humankind is intimately and intricately linked to nature and its fate. For the last decades, scientists everywhere have sounded the alarm, showing signs of a growing crisis: our planet is dying. In his Stern Review, former chief economist for the World Bank and expert on climate issues Sir Nicholas Stern writes “There is now clear evidence that emissions from economic activity, particularly the burning of fossil fuels for energy, are causing changes to the Earth’s climate40”. A decade later, we now know more about climate change than ever. From the disruption of the water cycle and holes in the ozone layer to crop failures and rising seas, the climate crisis has the potential to destroy all that humankind has built. It is now seen as an existential threat to our and most other species on the globe. Every year the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change issues an ‘Emissions Gap Report’, comparing the emissions gap between current pathways and scenarios to those which scientists say would mean the least damage to humankind. Typically, the UN IPCC examines 3 types of major climate scenarios: 1.5°C, 2°C and above 2°C. These temperatures refer to increases in global average temperatures by 2100 compared to pre-industrial averages. A change of 1.5 degrees41 39 Marx, K., “Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844”, (Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1959), page 31 40 Stern, N., “The Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change”, (Cambridge University Press, London, 2007), preface. 41 United Nations IPCC, “Global Warming of 1.5°”, (UN IPCC, 2018). 13 means increases in the deregulation of the water cycle, in mean temperatures around the world as well as sea level rising. Once the planet reaches 2 degrees, the effects of climate change are exponentially worse. Compared to 1.5°, average drought length doubles, wheat yields fall by twice as much and the frequency of warm extremes skyrockets from 130% (1.5°) to 343% (2°)42. Going past 2° of warming takes us to a future where coral reefs cannot grow back properly. Climate change, especially the acidification of the oceans, would prevent corals from growing and cause untold damage to the food chain43. The science is clear, going anywhere past 2 degrees of warming would cause irreversible loss and destruction. Although these facts have been presented repeatedly, the world is still on course for warming above 3 degrees Celsius44. The UN IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report, is resolute and firm in its conclusion that “human influence on the climate system is clear45”. The climate crisis is varied in its causes and impacts, but anthropogenic pressure on ecosystems and regenerative cycles is now scientifically indisputable. Greenhouse gases are observed to be the leading cause of global warming, as they trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere, causing temperatures to rise. However, humankind has also wrought havoc on ecosystems and not just worsened global warming through a destruction of planetary defences but we have also upset the balance of many biospheres around the world through human actions. For instance, deforestation has accelerated desertification throughout the world, which then affected levels of biodiversity and reduced the Earth’s carbon storage capacities by destroying carbon-storing forests, grasslands etc. Thus, the impacts of human over-exploitation of nature have been varied and numerous46. The Earth has been unable to handle greenhouse gas emissions due to the burning of fossil fuels, as well as the destruction of its cooling mechanisms, and proceeded to warm exponentially. 42 Carbon Brief, “The impacts of climate change at 1.5C, 2C and beyond”, (Carbon Brief, 2018), https://interactive.carbonbrief.org/impacts-climate-change-one-point-five-degrees-two- degrees/?utm_source=web&utm_campaign=Redirect#reference-list 43 United Nations IPCC, “Global Warming of 1.5°”, (UN IPCC, 2018), page 10 44 United Nations, “UN emissions report: World on course for more than 3 degree spike, even if climate commitments are met”, (UN News, November 2019), https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/11/1052171 45 United Nations IPCC, “Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report”, (UN IPCC, 2015), page 2. 46 United Nations IPCC, “Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report”, (UN IPCC, 2015), spm section 1 14 Whilst little of the debate remains over the extent to which humans are responsible for the destruction of ecosystems and the warming of planet Earth, one could argue the debate has now mostly moved on to whether or not our economic system is at fault47. In fact, many economists48 around the world now postulate that the entire neo-liberal capitalist system may not only be at fault but also incompatible with climate change objectives. Whilst this is still very much a topic of debate, it could be that parts of our economic system, such as austerity, may for example have multiplication effects. Environmental groups of all kinds have argued for a change of economic system, from Extinction Rebellion49 to Indigenous Action50, pointing out the contradictions between an unregulated profit-driven economy, where nature finds itself commodified, and a future where humans live within the confines of nature’s regenerative cycles, without causing harm to it. 2.2 Recent Effects of Climate Change Many studies done on climate change and its effects attempt to theorise on the state of our planet in 2050 or 2100. However, the effects of climate change are already being felt today. To begin with the Arctic, a crucial cog in the biological machine of our world, there is evidence the region may be without ice during summer periods within the next decade51. More than half of the planet’s freshwater is stored in the poles, at risk of melting under record temperatures and raising sea levels by considerable amounts. The effects of those raising temperatures are already the subject of scientific reports today. In the Canadian high arctic, the “observed maximum thaw depths (…) are already exceeding those projected to occur by 2090(…)52”. As permafrost and glaciers melt, they not only raise sea levels, but they also release stored carbon and reduce the 47 Storm, S., “Capitalism and Climate Change: Can the Invisible Hand Adjust the Natural Thermostat?”, (Development and Change, December 2009), page 1012 48 Varoufakis, Y., “Climate Change is capitalism’s Waterloo”, (Irish Examiner, January 2020), https://www.irishexaminer.com/breakingnews/views/analysis/yanis-varoufakis-climate-change-is-capitalisms- waterloo-978758.html 49 XR, “Our demands”, (Extinction Rebellion, 2020), https://rebellion.earth/the-truth/demands/, last visited 04/05/20 50 IA, “About”, (Indigenous Action, 2020), http://www.indigenousaction.org/about-2/ 51 Fountain, H., “Climate change is accelerating, bringing world “dangerously close” to irreversible change”, (The New York Times, December 2019), https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/04/climate/climate-change- acceleration.html 52 Farquharson, L., “Climate Change Drives Widespread and Rapid Thermokarst Development in Very Cold Permafrost in the Canadian High Arctic”, (Geographical Research Letters, June 2019), page 6681 15 planet’s defences against global warming53. On the other side of the globe, Antarctic ice is currently melting at triple the rate of melting from 2007 due to rising temperatures54. In more populated areas around the world, numerous scientists and academics have pointed the finger at climate change for effects such as the declines in rainfall and increases in heatwaves. Recently, academics have been postulating that one of the cataclysms for the Syrian civil war, a multi-year long drought, could have been worsened by climate change55. While events such as the war in Syria have a multiplicity of causes, not just climate change, the fingerprint left on the region is irrefutable according to scientific models. Across the world, river levels have been observed at record extremes, similar to rainfall and heat trends. However the environmental crisis isn’t just about climate and extremes, biodiversity has also been irreversibly damaged by humankind. Reports on global ecosystems warn we have already entered the “sixth mass extinction”, by demonstrable losses of vertebrate species, especially larger and more obvious ones. In the realm of insects, 41% of species have declined in numbers over the past decade, with more than 10% being labelled as endangered just from that period alone56. Thus, the varied effects of climate change and environmental degradation are currently being felt by ecosystems around the world, with seemingly catastrophic predictions for the end of the century. 2.3 Greek Environment and Climate Coming back, briefly, to the subject country of this essay, Greece is not immune to the climate crisis. Like all other nations it has suffered losses and adverse effects because of it. Greece’s geography consists of mountainous regions giving into peninsulas and an archipelago of thousands of islands57. Most of the population lives in a few high-density clusters, around Athens and several other cities, with the rest 53 Fountain, H., “Climate change is accelerating, bringing world “dangerously close” to irreversible change”, (The New York Times, December 2019), https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/04/climate/climate-change- acceleration.html 54 Pierre-Louis, K., “Antarctica is Melting Three Times as Fast as a Decade Ago”, (The New York Times, June 2018), https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/13/climate/antarctica-ice-melting-faster.html 55 McSweeney, R., “Scientists discuss the role of climate change in the Syrian civil war”, (Carbon Brief, March 2015), https://www.carbonbrief.org/scientists-discuss-the-role-of-climate-change-in-the-syrian-civil-war 56 Carrington, D., “Plummeting insect numbers ‘threaten collapse of nature’”, (The Guardian, February 2019), https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/feb/10/plummeting-insect-numbers-threaten-collapse-of-nature 57 CIA, “Europe: Greece”, (CIA Factbook, 2020), https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world- factbook/geos/print_gr.html 16 primarily spread around numerous islands and coasts. With only 10 million inhabitants, Greece is one of the richest countries of Europe when it comes to biodiversity, with “a great range of habitat niches and a spectacular flora and fauna58”. From forests of pine to marine parks, Greece boasts remarkable landscapes and natural riches. However, Greek people, companies and governments have slowly but surely encroached on nature’s domains over the past decades. Before the 1990s59, the environment in Greece had only received symbolic attention. After it joined the EU, Greek governments became profoundly influenced by EU green policies and began making serious progress in increasing protection, monitoring and funding for the environment. Therein, throughout the 1990s and early 2000s, Greece established a wide array of agencies and organisations whose roles were intimately linked with the protection of Greece’s rich natural heritage. The Greek Ombudsman, the National Centre for Environment and Sustainable Development as well as the Environment Ministry constitute the culmination of a few of the positive changes undertook by Greek governments during this period60. In total, 28 different bodies were created for the management of protected areas, a number that reflected the growing importance successive Greek administrations accorded to nature. However, this positive trend was cut short as the new decade arrived, and the 2010s signalled a new era of decline for Greek environmentalism. 3. Intersectionality of Crisis 3.1 Note on Scope and Method Now that we have contextualised the crises which constitute the subjects of this analysis, the scope and method must be outlined. Both the global climate crisis and the Greek austerity crisis are complex and varied in their effects. To assess influences between these two areas, we must first consider the scope of what will be examined, as well as what will be left out due to concerns of brevity. In an attempt to 58 IUCN, “Greece”, (IUCN, 2020), https://www.iucn.org/regions/europe/resources/country-focus/greece 59 Lekakis, J.N., “Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 311 60 Ibid, page 319. 17 display a degree of depth and breadth, just four major areas of environmental concerns will be studied: 1. Fauna and Flora 2. Pollution 3. Disasters 4. Human/Nature Relations Each area will be looked at in detail, and data will be reviewed to observe whether or not there are links between austerity policies - introduced throughout the first and second EAPs, from 2010 to 2012 – and environmental degradation. Proof of causality will not be attempted, however. As stated in the introduction, the aim of this paper is to demonstrate potential links and suggest findings on the question of the extent to which austerity policies have harmed the environment, and in return how that damage may have caused discernible harm to the Greek people. To this purpose, the following analysis contains findings from peer-reviewed academic articles, databases and reports from Non-Governmental Organisations, government and intergovernmental papers, as well as first-hand accounts documented throughout reputable news organisations or books. 3.2 Fauna and Flora The Convention on Biological Diversity61 (CBD) numbers the amount of animal species in Greece at more than 23,000, with almost 4,000 categorised as endemic, or native, to Greece. On the side of Greek flora, the country is home to almost 6,000 species of plants, with 22% of them being endemic. Unfortunately, 14% of Greece’s fauna and 4% of its flora is considered ‘endangered’. While these numbers may not seem it, they are relatively important compared to other European countries, especially in terms of endemism. Greece is a hotspot for biodiversity, and its rich fauna and flora have been under noticeable stress not just for the duration of human occupation of Greek lands, but particularly during the early 2010s. 61 Convention on Biological Diversity, “5th National Report on Greece”, (CBD, 2016), pages 2-4 18 3.2.1 Forests and Land The first legal provisions for the sustainable management of Greek forests were written into law in 1920, with gradual increases in their protections since then, notably since Greece joined the EU62. While forests cover a third of Greece, the CBD notes that due to the modernisation and intensification of production practices, Greek ecosystems have been “heavily influenced by human activity63”. Forests in particular have taken a turn for the worst as forest land found itself converted into agricultural or residential land. The Greek Forest Service (FS), a sub-unit of the Ministry of Environment and Energy (MoEE), highlights its general threats as being both of natural and anthropogenic sources64. The FS works all-year to preserve the state of the forests of Greece, and prevent both natural hazards such as high concentrations of dry and flammable organic matter, as well as disorder caused by humans, such as illegal logging, dangerous campfires and garbage dumping. While illegal logging is a real problem for the FS, forest fires are at the forefront of the FS’ duties, due to their potential destructive power and the high rate at which they happen in Greece. This will be covered extensively in the ‘Disasters’ section of this paper. In the realm of forest land use, there is significant evidence that forests have suffered major setbacks due to austerity laws. The Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) Greece signed alongside its EAP in 2010 and then again in 2012, stipulated a general direction towards which Greece should work. The MoU asked of Greece that it “adopt legislation establishing one-stop shops for starting new enterprises to cut procedures, costs and delays65” and that it “create a more open and accessible environment66”. These euphemisms are often used throughout the MoU and the EAP to suggest Greece decrease regulations and state oversight, in theory to allow for its markets to seem more inviting to new investment opportunities. In reality however, relaxing government regulations on forests has earned the state very little money, 62 Convention on Biological Diversity, “5th National Report on Greece”, (CBD, 2016), pages 7 63 Ibid, page 4 64 Ministry of Environment and Energy, “Forest Protection”, (MoEE, 2020), http://www.ypeka.gr/el- gr/%CE%94%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%B7/%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF% 83%CE%AF%CE%B1-%CE%94%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%8E%CE%BD 65 Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, May 2010),. N°61, page 48 66 Ibid, page 41 19 instead causing dire damage to Greece’s forests and land. This damage can be observed to some extent in Greece’s data regarding forestry. According to the Ministry of Environment (MoEnv.)67, the total volume of trees felled in Greek forests went up by around 26% from 2009 to 2012. The majority of that increase (16%) took place in a single year, in 2012, which could be linked to the austerity bills passed in parliament which greatly affected land use and forest protections. The WWF’s extensive reporting on the subject has shone a light on the Greek government’s handling of the environment, particularly in 2011-12. According to WWF officials, Greece completely disregarded many of the laws already in place at the national level as well as at the European level. Disregard for laws and policies such as the EU Natura 2000 regulations allowed Greece to pass environmentally- destructive bills without due process or consultation68. For example, plans to widen the scope of land where aquaculture could take place were pushed through parliament without the necessary consultation of associated legal bodies. Instead, the MoEnv. worked to pass legislation that legalised aquaculture in the near-entirety of Greek waters, including protected marine areas69. The MoEnv has also been accused of rendering around 1 million buildings - originally built illegally and without permits on protected land – legal, hoping this change would create a stream of new revenue. The EAP Greece signed specifically referred to this as a potential source of profit, when it asked for “levies on profitable firms, regularisation of illegal buildings as well as gambling70”. Alongside new land use regulations, opening up Greece’s protected areas to diverse new investors looking to turn its natural resources into profitable opportunities, forests were hit particularly hard. The legalisation of illegal buildings on protected land was paired with the opening of thousands of new roads through forests to ease accessibility71. The leases through which land was legalised allowed forests to be cleared with no monitoring measures in place. Additionally, the legal limit at which the illegal harvest of timber turns from being regarded as a petty crime 67 Ministry of Environment & Energy, “Forest Management”, (Ministry of Environment & Energy, 2020), https://tinyurl.com/ycp6zzmr, last visited 05/05/20 68 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 4 69 Ibid, page 5 70 Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, May 2010),. N°61, page 15 71 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 10 20 to a full-fledged felony was changed by the MoEnv. This caused illegal logging to skyrocket in some parts of Greece, as the government arguably legalised or encouraged the illicit behaviour. Finally, a series of laws were passed allowing the removal of waste (including metallurgical and industrial waste) in forests. Effectively, the Greek government had legalised criminal buildings on land and forests crucially important to the country’s ecosystems, and distanced itself from its role as their caretaker. In 201272, the Forest Service was merged with the Agricultural Police, further distilling the state’s power over the treatment of its forests. Members of the Forest Service whose previous job was to regulate public usage of forests were instead being tasked with policing agricultural issues such as thefts of produce or animals. This merger, coupled with the firing of thousands of public workers throughout Greece due to austerity measures, caused serious harm to the management of Greece’s biomes, particularly its forests. Lastly, the case of heating fuel hikes became one of the first widely-publicised examples of a discernible link between austerity measures, taken in sectors not entirely related to environment, and negative environmental consequences73. The 2nd EAP’s Memorandum suggested a hike in tax fuel to raise more state revenue, as they had observed that many Greeks used heating fuel as car fuel instead since it was cheaper. In the fall of 2012, as part of its austerity package, the Greek government introduced a 450% increase in heating fuel tax74. Heating bills for small Athens apartments rose by as much as 46%, while wages fell and unemployment went up. Figures show that Greeks, instead of paying the extra 450%, decided to flock to alternative ways of heating their homes. Consumption of heating fuel went down 70% in the final quarter of 2012 as a reported 80% of Greeks could not afford the bill75. The government subsequently experienced a loss of 126 million euros in lost revenue from heating fuel tax. As prices for heating fuel soared, Greeks found in their forests a sure-fire way to keep warm. The FS reported unmanageable increases in illegal logging, often either by poorer families looking to heat their house in the cold of 72 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 11 73 Lekakis, J.N., “ Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 314 74 Daley, S., “Rise in Oil Tax Forces Greeks to Face Cold as Ancients Did”, (The New York Times, February 2013), https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/04/world/europe/oil-tax-forces-greeks-to-fight-winter-with-fire.html 75 Ibid. 21 winter, or delinquents cutting down trees to sell on black markets76. Therein, it could be said that the rise in heating fuel had a discernible effect on the rate of deforestation and illegal logging. 3.2.2 Wildlife As stated in previous sections, Greece is recognised as a global hotspot for biodiversity. In its early days as a democracy, Greece did not have strong environmental laws, and suffered from a total lack of governance in that area. However, its heterogeneous qualities branded it as an important nest, garnering the attention of the 2000 Natura EU Project, which seeks to help EU countries protect their ecosystems. Now, Greece hosts more than 419 Natura 2000 (N2000) sites, each significant to the world’s biodiversity in diverse ways77. In 1999, the Greek government set up 28 different management bodies to monitor and manage a portion of the N2000 sites. Conservation bodies as well as independent researchers have often criticised Greece for its sub-optimal tracking, monitoring and enforcing of conservation laws78. These gaps in Greek governance, present already before 2010, have weakened the N2000 policies and compromised conservation efforts in Greece due to issues such as insufficient/ inadequate data. According to the first National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, Greece’s biodiversity loss, previous to 2013, was caused primarily by a “lack of vision and poor application of sustainability measures (…), administrative delays and poorly enforced (…) provisions79”. Thus, even before the austerity crisis, Greece did not stand out as an authority on conservation issues. There are specific issues, between the years 2010-2015 that could however be linked to the Greek austerity programmes. In general terms, authorities and organisations such as WWF saw evident decreases in wardening, a problem they say existed before but was “accentuated80” by austerity measures such as substantial layoffs of public workers. “Wardening is non- existent” they warn, “Funding for protected areas management and wardening is 76 Daley, S., “Rise in Oil Tax Forces Greeks to Face Cold as Ancients Did”, (The New York Times, February 2013), https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/04/world/europe/oil-tax-forces-greeks-to-fight-winter-with-fire.html 77 Dimopoulos, P., “The Need for the Implementation of an Ecosystem Services Assessment in Greece: Drafting the National Agenda”, (One Ecosystem, July 2017), page 15 78 Paliogiannis, C., “The Impact of the Economic Crisis on the Implementation of the EU Nature Directives in Greece: An Expert-Based View”, (Journal for Nature Conservation, April 2019), page 37 79 Ibid, page 43 80 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 9 22 negligible81”. Decreases in funding, directly demanded by the EAPs of 2010 and 2012 have thus translated to a diminishing of Greece’s already-questionably low levels of environmental monitoring and management. For example, 2010 directives passed by the European Parliament on overfishing were reportedly never implemented in Greece throughout its austerity period82. Additionally, the National Biodiversity Strategy, a crucial document outlining a new and holistic approach to conservation efforts, remained a draft from 2009 to 2014 due to delays caused or worsened by both the firing of public workers and the shift in priorities during the economic crisis83. Similarly to Greek forests, Greek biodiversity suffered when protected areas became available for urban and commercial planning under austerity laws. A great majority of the country’s national parks lacked legal protection, which was further weakened by the changes in development planning84. Furthermore, as the section on pollution will aim to demonstrate, there have been worrying increases in air and water pollution during Greece’s austerity years, both of which have been identified as leading causes of biodiversity loss in Greece. Therein, not only is the mismanagement and defunding of Greece’s environmental agencies hurting biodiversity, other austerity measures are also having cross-sector impacts85. It is possible that austerity policies may have had an impact on the conservation status of Greek species. Data suggests that the amount of “unfavourable” statuses for species went up from 25% in 2001-2007 to 55% in 2007-201286. While, due to insufficient data, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact year in which the trend so drastically increased, it could be that this correlates to effects from austerity policies passed in 2010-2012. One such policy, which potentially had a direct impact on biodiversity numbers, was the removal of hunting bans in Greece’s National Parks in 201187. With restrictions lifted, hunters were allowed, arguably encouraged, to hunt Greece’s wildlife, even those in protected areas. 81 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 9 82 Lekakis, J.N., “ Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 317 83 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 9 84 Ibid, page 9 85 Paliogiannis, C., “The Impact of the Economic Crisis on the Implementation of the EU Nature Directives in Greece: An Expert-Based View”, (Journal for Nature Conservation, April 2019), Page 47 86 Ibid, Page 38 87 Lekakis, J.N., “ Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 317 23 Two cases stood out over the period of crisis, both affecting Greece’s biodiversity in very direct ways and facilitated or enabled by austerity measures. The first was the case of the illegal waste facility in Zakynthos. In 2012, the European Commission urged Greece to shut down its landfill, which was breaching EU laws, as the pollution caused direct harm to the endangered Caretta Caretta turtle species88. Greek authorities replied they did not have the money to build a waste management facility, but that they would try do build one within 2 years. In 2014, Greece was told to pay 10 million euros for its non-compliance as it did not have the facility built, and the Caretta Caretta turtles were still at risk of pollution from the waste site89. The problem of the illegal landfill could be theorised to have been exacerbated by the removal of protection of National Parks – which the turtles live in near the landfill – as well as the lack of funds or prioritisation. The second case, that of the Acheloos River, was once again an issue of legality and funding priorities. While it had been in the works for years, the planned diversion of the Acheloos river to water the intensive agriculture of the Thessaly plains became a centre of attention as the Troika suggested funding a project like it to increase agricultural revenues90. Five environmental organisations fought back and in 2012, the Greek Supreme Court as well as the European Court of Justice ruled it illegal. As part of its development plan, the Greek state was looking to invest 14.5 million euros into the plan, despite reports from EU Natura 2000 authorities as well as environmental groups such as WWF that showed clear indications this would have devastating consequences on wildlife in the region. Still, the project went ahead, putting development ahead of the wellbeing of the ecosystems91. 3.3 Pollution 3.3.1 Air For years, scientists from around the world have warned institutions and governments about the dangers of air pollution. Decades of scientific studies have led 88 European Commission, “Environment: Commission urges Cyprus and Greece to clean up waste landfills”, (EC Press Releases, January 2012), https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/EN/IP_12_66 89 Watson Farley & Williams, “Briefing on the New Greek National Waste Management Plan”, (WF&W, September 2015), page 1. 90 Lekakis, J.N., “ Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 315 91 Lekakis, J.N., “ Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 315 24 to a strong consensus among health officials, that “air pollution, even at ambient levels, aggravates morbidity and leads to premature mortality92”. Furthermore, research shows evidence that pollution can have direct negative impacts on ecosystems, damaging everything from tree leaves to soil and bodies of water93. Greece, in particular, has had chronic issues with two types of air pollutions: particulate matter (PM) and chemical-based94. Throughout the 1990s, Greece introduced a number of programmes and measures, often backed or demanded by the European Union, to decrease air pollution. Policies targeting energy efficiency and cleanliness, fuel quality or even the use of old cars, were introduced. These policies have had positive impacts, yet air pollution still remained one of Greece’s leading environmental issues during the austerity crisis, as well as after95. Typically, air pollution is found to be somewhat tied to economic activity, and seen to increase/decrease alongside economic activity, especially during recessions96. Thus, we should expect, to some degree, lower air pollution numbers for the austerity years of 2010-2015. To some degree, this has shown to be true, however there are clear outliers that suggest a link between austerity policies and worsening air pollution. According to the WWF, in terms of PM (PM 2.5 and PM10) and NO2, Greece “regularly exceeds the ceilings set97”, and highlights how these particular pollutants have actually gone up in concentration during the austerity years. While no direct, proven, cause is outlined by WWF, they do however postulate that the government’s termination of the ban on diesel car is partly to blame98. Greece’s previous diesel ban was said to have halved pollution from traffic between 1996 and 200699. Yet, in 2011, the government decided that its 1991 ban on diesel cars should be shelved to try and encourage economic activity. Diesel car sales shot up from representing 20% of car 92 Moussiopoulos, N., “Air quality status in Greater Thessaloniki Area and the emission reductions needed for attaining the EU air quality legislation”, (Science of the Total Environment, February 2009), page 1269 93 EPA, “Ecosystems and Air Quality”, (US Environmental Protection Agency, 2020), https://www.epa.gov/eco- research/ecosystems-and-air-quality 94 Athanasios V., “Atmospheric Pollution in Urban Areas of Greece and Economic Crisis”, (University of Athens, Department of Chemistry, November 2015), page 2 95 Ibid, page 3 96 Davis, M., “Recessions and Health: The Impact of Economic Trends on Air Pollution in California”, (American Public Health Association, October 2012), page 1. 97 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 5 98 Ibid, page 6 99 Fuller, G., “Air Quality Worsens in Greece as Recession Bites”, (The Guardian, October 2016), https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/oct/30/air-quality-worsens-greece-recession-bites-world- pollutionwatch 25 sales in Athens, to 60% in a single year100. While research suggests that overall, traffic became less important for particulate matter pollution in an austerity-ridden Greece, measures taken by the government to bring back diesel cars could have worsened the numbers101. Despite some research on the subject, it remains difficult to know the precise extent to which policies have impacted Greek air pollutant concentrations, as Greece has been repeatedly reprimanded by scientific authorities over its “absence of the necessary control mechanisms102” and “poor quality of available national data103”. Revisiting once more the case of the austerity-driven heating fuel tax hike, allows us to observe a more overt link between austerity policies and air pollution. The heating fuel hike has been denounced by researchers as having had a direct impact on air pollution in Greece. As citizens substituted central heating oil for wood and various other inflammable objects they could find, noticeable smog clouds began appearing, containing “PM2.5, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide and other harmful pollutants, at least five times higher than acceptable levels104”. Doctors have claimed that even in short bursts, such as during the winter months of the austerity years, air pollution concentration levels this high could cause minor issues in the short term as well as long-term breathing illnesses105. 3.3.2 Water Greece has long faced serious challenges related to its water resources. From overexploitation to contamination, little has been done over the history of the democracy to truly protect its source of life. Even before the crisis, water was being used at unsustainable levels, mostly for farming purposes106. Similar to air pollution 100 Holman C., “Evaluation of the effectiveness of measures to improve quality air applied in Northern and Central Europe”, (AIRUSE, Life EU, April 2016), page 7 101 Vouitsis, I., “Daily and seasonal variation of traffic related aerosol pollution in Thessaloniki, Greece, during the financial crisis”, (Atmospheric Environment, December 2015), page 585 102 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 6 103 Paliogiannis, C., “The Impact of the Economic Crisis on the Implementation of the EU Nature Directives in Greece: An Expert-Based View”, (Journal for Nature Conservation, April 2019), Page 40 104 Lekakis, J.N., “ Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 315 105 Daley, S., “Rise in Oil Tax Forces Greeks to Face Cold as Ancients Did”, (The New York Times, February 2013), https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/04/world/europe/oil-tax-forces-greeks-to-fight-winter-with-fire.html 106 Athanasios, V., “Environmental Crisis in Greece. The Consequences of Modernity and Economic Growth without Sustainability Goals”, (University of Athens, Faculty of Natural Sciences, September 2012), page 5 26 data, water pollution research suffers from drastic gaps in raw, primary data. This issue, which existed pre-austerity, has reportedly worsened due to funding and personnel cuts107. The consistent lowering of budgets for water authorities, alongside the government’s easing of environmental permit regulations means that not only did new businesses receive their permits faster, but there was fewer staff around to monitor water pollutant levels. According to reports from several environmental organisations, water pollution management and governance was gutted of its means to enforce the few laws Greece adhered to in that sector108. For example, in 2011, hydropower plants were allowed to operate without any environmental inspections109, an austerity policy willing to encourage new power plants even if their activities showed dire consequences for the quality of Greece’s waters. State-level plans for a comprehensive approach at protecting Greek bodies of water were delayed by several years as funding and focus were diverted away from environment towards the economy. While the surface quality of Greek waters seems positive, the lack of data and research, paired with reports of eutrophication and rising illegal pollution of rivers and lakes, suggests the austerity years could have been terribly negative for Greece110. 3.3.3 Waste “The situation with waste management in Greece is truly chaotic” the WWF warns in 2012. Due to the EAP agreement’s push for an increasingly deregulated market in Greece, austerity policies aimed at ‘liberalising’ the economy have allowed for illegal or environmentally-damaging landfills to open up around the country without repercussions111. Budget limitations and lack of policy implementation or enforcement once again is found to be at fault for reported rises in mismanaged waste112. 107 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 8 108 Ibid, page 8-10 109 Ibid, page 9 110 Athanasios, V., “Environmental Crisis in Greece. The Consequences of Modernity and Economic Growth without Sustainability Goals”, (University of Athens, Faculty of Natural Sciences, September 2012), page 6-9 111 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 8 112 Lekakis, J.N., “ Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 316 27 In order to free the economy from regulatory shackles, the Troika and Greek government adopted a new law on waste management in 2012. When it had been drafted, this law was supposed to help move Greece closer to the European Union’s own standards on waste. However, the government distilled the plans and instead chose to use it to ease regulations on waste management, allowing practices that were seen by environmental authorities to be negative for natural areas113. The law allowed for setting up of waste treatment and waste management facilities without any need for environmental impact studies. Facilities were effectively given an exemption from any environmental permit they would have necessitated before the crisis114. In 2012, 395 landfills in Greece were recorded as illegally existing. As we have previously seen with the Caretta Caretta turtles case, these landfills were allowed even on lands legally set as National Parks, displaying a prioritisation of economy over environment in Greece’s austerity years. 3.4 Disasters Greece has been home to some of the worst natural disasters in Europe. Unfortunately, the country has been hit by severe floods, fires and heatwaves over the past decades. According to the World Bank, floods affect on average 50,000 people and 600 million USD worth of GDP per year in Greece115, yet they are rarely researched, monitored or mentioned in Greek environmental/defence literature. Alongside floods, we find that other natural disasters such as heatwaves or earthquakes, both extremely damaging to Greek people and ecosystems, have not been the subject of much research. Without data, the only speculation we could propose is that budget cuts for health services, which have been shown to have had drastic effects on people’s health and wellbeing116, could have worsened the amount of injuries or deaths caused by natural disasters. In line with this, we could also say that there is potential for a link between the worsening of water management in 113 Lekakis, J.N., “ Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 318 114 WWF, “Environmental Legislation in Greece – Summary”, (WWF, Annual Review, June 2012), page 8 115 World Bank Group, “Greece”, (World Bank, 2015), http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/979011483041849261/greece.pdf 116 World Health Organisation, “Greek Crisis fallout is an opportunity for health”, (Bulletin of the WHO, 2014), https://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/92/1/14-030114/en/ 28 Greece, mentioned in the previous sections, and flood numbers for the austerity years. However, among this uncertainty, the data and research around fires stands out. As the Forest Service’s description of their duties pointed out, the clearing of dry biomass and potential fire starters is one of the main preoccupations for forest wardens117. While in general, Greece’s fires tend to burn less area and number fewer than the ones afflicting other Mediterranean countries such as Portugal or Spain, Greece’s fires are on average disproportionately larger than its peers118. With averages typically hovering around 1,000 fires/year, Greece ended the decade with 1,052 fires in 2010119. By 2012, this number had risen to nearly 1,600120, with total burned land going up by 570% compared to 2010. The EU Commission, reporting on European fires, notes that these numbers are significantly higher than previous years. While the amount of fires decrease over the years 2013-2015, the total burned land stays at much higher areas than in average pre-austerity years121. Thus, we can observe a clear rise from 2010 to 2012 especially, wherein fire size, numbers and area increased, sometimes by more than 500%. While no study has been done on a direct link between austerity measures and the rates and sizes of Greek fires, looking at the policies enacted suggests a relationship between the two. First, from 2009 to 2015, the allocated budget for the Hellenic Fire Service (HFS) saw a decrease of around 26%122, effectively cutting by a quarter its means of fighting fires. Furthermore, Dimitris Stathopoulos, the representative of the biggest national union of Greek firefighters (Federation of Firefighters) accused budget cuts for years of unpreparedness. He pointed out in an interview with The Guardian123 that austerity measures had left 30% of their fire trucks “useless124” due to insufficient 117 Ministry of Environment and Energy, “Forest Protection”, (MoEE, 2020), http://www.ypeka.gr/el- gr/%CE%94%CE%AC%CF%83%CE%B7/%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF% 83%CE%AF%CE%B1-%CE%94%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%8E%CE%BD, last visited 05/05/20 118 European Commission, “Forest Fires in Europe”, (JRC European Commission, Report N°11, 2011), Page 9 119 Ibid, page 29 120 European Commission, “Forest Fires in Europe, Middle East and North Africa”, (JRC European Commission, 2012), Page 21 121 European Commission, “Forest Fires in Europe, Middle East and North Africa”, (JRC European Commission, 2014), Page 21 122 See Annex 1 123 Smith, H., “Greek firefighters join public outcry at woeful response to lethal wildfires”, (The Guardian, Athens, July 2018), https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/28/greece-wildfires-firefighters-attack- government-response?CMP=Share_iOSApp_Other 124 Ibid. 29 funds for repairs. Investigations from journalists found125 that contracts had been abridged so that a number of fire brigade staff would be laid off progressively. Before Greece’s austerity years, they numbered at around 15,000 full-time HFS staff. In 2018 they were reduced to almost half with only 8,000 fire brigade staff remaining. Staff were reporting having had severe changes to their diets due to wage cuts, with almost 80% of HFS staff being reportedly obese or overweight and the majority blaming diminishing pay checks for their ill-health126. With less money to spend on fire prevention, lower salaries to take care of themselves with and a decrepit fleet of vehicles, the HSF firefighters were hit particularly hard by austerity measures. If we pair this with the increasing number of fires observed during the austerity years, especially 2010-2012, the HSF was asked to do more with less. We could then suggest a link between these two factors. In addition to this, the government seemed to be motivated by the EAPs to make decisions about the HSF to satisfy direct economic demands instead of disaster-related ones. One such case was the relocation of 540 firefighters from priority areas to 14 different airports newly bought by a German company. The Greek government decided to move the firefighters and accept payment by Fraport, instead of utilizing these crucial workers where mayors and local governments were asking for increases in HSF staff numbers127. Thus, the cuts in wages, budgets and personnel have had an unmistakeable impact on the Hellenic Fire Service. These impacts have been varied but seem to indicate the increasing number and size of fires during Greece’s austerity years could be due in part to these worsening conditions. If so, this would mean austerity cuts could be partially responsible for damages caused by forest fires in the 2010s in Greece. 3.5 The Human/Nature Rift The three domains of environment this paper has thus far examined have all had something in common. An analysis of trends between austerity measures and biodiversity, pollution and environmental disasters showed that the EAP pushed the 125 Fubini, F., “Grecia, tagli alla Protezione civile nel pacchetto austerità: così è arrivata fragile al «traguardo» europeo”, (Corriere Della Serra, July 2018), https://www.corriere.it/esteri/18_luglio_25/incendi-grecia-tagli- protezione-civile-d8a2953c-8f84-11e8-84b6-8543850c3d94.shtml?refresh_ce-cp 126 Ibid. 127 Leontopoulos, N., “The EU Commission’s Hubris Over the Greek Wildfire”, (Investigate Europe, August 2018), https://www.investigate-europe.eu/the-eu-commissions-hubris-over-the-greek-wildfires/ 30 Greek government to instrumentalise nature. Repeatedly, we can see the government falling into a paradigm of economy vs. environment. In fact, both EAPs failed to make any mention of even the words “environment” or “nature” (they did however make mention of ‘business environments”)128129. The sole focus of the EAPs seemed to be on “growth130”, regardless of the consequences. We’ve seen the consequences of austerity on environmental institutions’ budgets throughout sections 3.1 to 3.4. In addition to these, it is important to note that the Ministry of Environment’s budget went down from 330 million euros (2009) to 117 million euros in 2011 and then 99 million euros in 2012131. Furthermore, during my research, it gradually became clear that websites and databases were not kept up to date. From the Fire Service to the Ministry of Environment’s own website: links would redirect visitors to blank pages, data would be missing for specific years or areas and entire websites would be left behind without updates. This was the leading issue that prevented this paper from making progress. It demonstrates, in a sense, the lack of care by Greek authorities towards environmental issues. I believe this is not a problem that originated from austerity policies, but there is reason to believe that it was aggravated by them. In their time of crisis, it appeared that the Greek government, at the behest of its financiers, intensified its efforts to instrumentalise nature. Protected areas were sold to the highest bidder, environmental permits were fast-tracked for heavy- polluters and environment institutions/authorities were the subjects of mergers, cuts or indifference. A prioritisation of short-term gains over long-term benefits permeates Greece’s austerity policies. At the human level, this is noticeable through pension cuts, layoffs etc, but as we’ve demonstrated in the previous sections, the environment also suffered from austerity. In fact, the largest environmental fund in Greece’s history, the “Green Fund”, was originally set up in 2010 to pay for a green transition. In fine, the Green Fund was defunded of its 1 billion euros within a year of austerity measures passing parliament, with 95% of its contents going to the state’s general coffers132. The Greek government drained the state of its environmental 128 Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “The Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, May 2012),. N°94. 129 Directorate General for Economic and Financial Affairs, “The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece”, (European Commission, Occasional Papers, May 2010),. N°61. 130 Mentioned 108 times, about twice per page 131 See Annex 1 132 Lekakis, J.N., “ Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 316 31 budgets over the austerity years, putting economic wellbeing above that of its biosphere. Unfortunately, Greeks could not complain to the State nor to the supranational authorities, as both were working towards a growth-oriented economy133. And while many community grassroots organisations formed under the crisis, the way that not only the government, but also the population, had begun to see nature could be argued to have changed. Nature was no longer something to be protected and nurtured, for holistic or even spiritual reasons, it was a resource to be utilised, to serve the country’s economic comeback. 133 Lekakis, J.N., “ Economic Crisis: Troika and the Environment in Greece”, (South European Society and Politics, May 2013), page 318 32 4. Conclusion From the onset of this analysis, one theme has characterised the events and effects of Greece’s austerity relating to its environment: that of de-prioritising nature. Throughout the Troika and Greece’s ‘marriage’, development seems to have taken the throne as the priority for all. As Greece was told by its financiers to cut budgets and spending, it was shown to repeatedly look for money in the degradation of its environment. Entire institutions would be merged, funding slashed and staff fired. Unfortunately, without regulations, nature cannot look after itself when human economic interests are at play. While it was not the aim of this paper to prove a link between austerity policies and the worsening of environmental issues in Greece, a number of suggestions were made. There is strong evidence that austerity policies have indeed worked to damage Greece’s ecosystems. As we’ve seen through examinations of effects on biodiversity, pollution and disasters, Greece’s environment became much more of a means to an end as the austerity policies took hold. Nature seemed to exist for the sole purpose of profit. When it could not bring direct profit to the balance sheets, it was discarded through a lack of monitoring or management. Permits were fast-tracked, legal norms not implemented and supranational laws ignored. Evidence strongly suggests that the climate crisis will be humanity’s most complex challenge yet. Surpassing it will surely entail an understanding of the intersectionality between nature and humankind. Thus, it is crucial we continue to undertake research into the effects of political and economic policies on the environment. I would recommend that future research go further into analysing the effects of specific economic policies on environmental health. Furthermore, I believe it would be of great interest to continue studying both the scientific evidence of human activity on nature and its reciprocal effects on humans, as well as the more philosophical evidence of the disconnect between humans and nature. Both are imperative in understanding how we may change our societies to ensure the survival of our species. Austerity, as we have observed in the case of Greece, seems to point us to the path of Erysichthon, where atrophy will have rid us of all until there is nothing left but ourselves. 33 Annex 1 - Budgets for Hellenic Fire Service: o 2009: To Ethnos, August 9, 2018, page 1. https://newspapers.news247.gr/politikes/4/to_ethnos/23770/date/20180809, last visited 05/05/20 o 2011: Ministry of Citizen Protection, December 2010, https://diavgeia.gov.gr/doc/4%CE%99%CE%99%CE%9A%CE%99- %CE%A82?inline=true o 2012: Ministry of Citizen Protection, December 2011, https://diavgeia.gov.gr/doc/45%CE%A86%CE%99- %CE%95%CE%97%CE%A4?inline=true o 2013: Ministry of Citizen Protection, November 2012, https://diavgeia.gov.gr/doc/%CE%924%CE%A3%CE%A6%CE%99- %CE%A1%CE%9D%CE%A8?inline=true o 2014: Ministry of Citizen Protection, December 2013, https://diavgeia.gov.gr/doc/%CE%92%CE%9B%CE%93%CE%A8%CE%99- %CE%9D%CE%9A5?inline=true o 2015: Ministry of Citizen Protection, December 2014, https://diavgeia.gov.gr/doc/%CE%A9%CE%9F%CE%935%CE%99- %CE%910%CE%97?inline=true - Budgets for Ministry of Environment o 2009, 2010: https://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/2f026f42-950c-4efc- b950-340c4fb76a24/1.0.pdf, page 83 o 2011: https://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/2f026f42-950c-4efc-b950- 340c4fb76a24/EISHGHTIKH%202012.pdf, page 69 o 2012: https://www.hellenicparliament.gr/UserFiles/2f026f42-950c-4efc-b950- 340c4fb76a24/EISHGHTIKH_2013.pdf?fbclid=IwAR0JZjTj5kClFJ5ndnlslM FhwM36QZR9oxq1SGgrnHeoL5vSRI9GCHP7jco, page 91 34 Bibliography - Athanasios, Valavanidis. “Atmospheric Pollution in Urban Areas of Greece and Economic Crisis”. 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