Re-thinking Mobility Poverty This book seeks to better conceptualise and define mobility poverty, ad- dressing both its geographies and socio-economic landscapes. It moves be- yond the analysis of ‘transport poverty’ and innovatively explores mobility inequalities and social construction of mobility disadvantages. The debate on mobility poverty is gaining momentum due to its role in triggering social exclusion and economic deprivation. In this light, this book examines the social construction of mobility poverty by delving into mobility patterns and needs as they are differently experienced by social groups in different geographical situations. It considers factors such as the role of transport regimes and their social value when analysing the social construction of individual ́s mobility needs. Furthermore, the gaps between articulated and unarticulated needs are identified by observing actual travel patterns of individuals. The book offers a comparison of the global phe- nomenon through fieldwork conducted in six different European countries – Greece, Portugal, Italy, Luxembourg, Romania and Germany. This book will be useful reading for planners, sociologists, geographers, mobility/transport researchers, mobility advocates, policy-makers and transport practitioners. Tobias Kuttler is a geographer and urban planner, working on urban devel- opment, mobility and social disadvantage. He is a researcher at TU Berlin and PhD Candidate at TU Munich. He is writing his PhD dissertation on the transformation of the taxi industry in Mumbai, India. Massimo Moraglio is a Senior Researcher at Technische Universität Berlin and Coordinator of the MBA “Sustainable Mobility”. His work explores the relationship between technology and society, focusing on scenarios and transitions. He is a member of the editorial board of Mobilities and Applied Mobilities , and editor-in-chief of The Journal of Transport History Transport and Society Series Editor: John D. Nelson This series focuses on the impact of transport planning policy and imple- mentation on the wider society and on the participation of the users. It dis- cusses issues such as: gender and public transport, travel for the elderly and disabled, transport boycotts and the civil rights movement etc. Interdisci- plinary in scope, linking transport studies with sociology, social welfare, cultural studies and psychology. The Mobilities Paradigm Discourses and Ideologies Edited by Marcel Endres, Katharina Manderscheid and Christophe Mincke Ports as Capitalist Spaces A Critical Analysis of Devolution and Development Gordon Wilmsmeier and Jason Monios Non-motorized transport integration into urban transport planning in Africa Edited by Winnie Mitullah, Marianne Vanderschuren and Meleckidzedeck Khayesi Assembling Bus Rapid Transit in the Global South Translating Global Models, Materialising Infrastructure Politics Malve Jacobsen Re-thinking Mobility Poverty Understanding Users ́ Geographies, Backgrounds and Aptitudes Edited by Tobias Kuttler and Massimo Moraglio For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ Transport-and-Society/book-series/TSOC Re-thinking Mobility Poverty Understanding Users’ Geographies, Backgrounds and Aptitudes Edited by Tobias Kuttler and Massimo Moraglio LONDON AND NEW YORK First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 selection and editorial matter, Tobias Kuttler and Massimo Moraglio; individual chapters, the contributors The rights of Tobias Kuttler and Massimo Moraglio to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, have been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. The Open Access version of this book, available at www.taylorfrancis.com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license. Trademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978-0-367-33330-0 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-33331-7 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by codeMantra I dedicate this work/this volume to my parents, Erika and Franz (TK) List of figures xi List of tables xiii Contributor biographies xv Acknowledgements xix Disclaimers xxi Preface xxiii SI LV I A M A F F I I A N D SI MON E B O SE T T I Foreword: a mobility justice lens on mobility poverty xxix M I M I SH E L L E R Introduction 1 T OBI A S KU T T L E R A N D M A S SI MO MOR AGL IO PART I Social skills and individual aptitudes 21 1 Learning mobility 23 T OBI A S KU T T L E R A N D M A S SI MO MOR AGL IO 2 Unequal mobilities, network capital and mobility justice 39 T OBI A S KU T T L E R A N D M A S SI MO MOR AGL IO 3 The impact of life events on travel behaviour 49 DE L PH I N E G R A N D SA RT PART II Geographies of mobility poverty 59 4 The spatial dimension of mobility poverty 61 T OBI A S KU T T L E R Contents viii Contents 5 The urban arena 81 T OBI A S KU T T L E R 6 The rural arena 98 S T E FA NO B ORGAT O, SI LV I A M A F F I I A N D C O SI MO C H I F F I PART III Societal roots and impacts 111 7 Women and gender-related aspects 113 S T E FA NO B ORGAT O, SI LV I A M A F F I I , PAT R I Z I A M A L GI E R I A N D C O SI MO C H I F F I 8 People on low income and unemployed persons 124 S T E FA NO B ORGAT O, SI LV I A M A F F I I A N D SI MON E B O SE T T I 9 Impacts on mobility in an ageing Europe 135 VA S C O R E I S A N D A N DR É F R E I TA S 10 The predicaments of European disabled people 147 VA S C O R E I S A N D A N DR É F R E I TA S 11 Migrants, ethnic minorities and mobility poverty 162 PAT R IC K VA N E GMON D, T OBI A S KU T T L E R A N D JOA N N E W I RT Z 12 Children and young people 180 S T E FA NO B ORGAT O, SI LV I A M A F F I I A N D SI MON E B O SE T T I PART IV The fieldwork 193 13 Forced car ownership and forced bus usage: contrasting realities of unemployed and elderly people in rural regions – the case of Guarda, Portugal 195 VA S C O R E I S A N D A N DR É F R E I TA S 14 Perception of mobility poverty in remote peri-urban Salento, Italy 205 C O SI MO C H I F F I , SI LV I A M A F F I I A N D PAT R I Z I A M A L GI E R I 15 Isolation, individualism and sharing: mobility poverty in Naxos and Small Cyclades, Greece 217 A K R I V I V I V I A N K IOUSI , M A R I Z A KON I DI A N D DA R I YA RU BL OVA Contents ix 16 Unmet needs: exploring mobility poverty in Buz ă u, Romania 227 R A Z VA N A N DR E I GH E ORGH I U A N D VA L E N T I N IOR DAC H E 17 Towards an understanding of the social meanings of mobility: the case of Esslingen, Germany 237 T OBI A S KU T T L E R 18 Mobility poverty in Luxembourg: crossing borders, real estate, vulnerable groups and migrants 251 PAT R IC K VA N E GMON D A N D JOA N N E W I RT Z Findings and conclusions 260 T OBI A S KU T T L E R A N D M A S SI MO MOR AGL IO Index 275 0.1 Transport poverty 6 0.2 Fieldwork study regions 12 1.1 The motility approach 27 1.2 The relationships between well-being and mobility 30 3.1 USEmobility segments of attitude by country 53 3.2 Degree of influence of changes in one’s personal/private situation on mobility decisions 53 3.3 Influence of primary push-factors concerning public transport 54 4.1 The peri-urban area as a part of the rural-urban region 65 4.2 Processes of urban expansion 66 4.3 Agglomeration development and rural-urban linkages 67 4.4 Global-local restructuration 68 4.5 Accessibility of urban functions (2011): Number of cities >50,000 inhabitants within 60 minutes’ road travel time 71 4.6 Accessibility of urban functions (2011): Number of cities >50,000 inhabitants within 60 minutes’ rail travel time 72 4.7 Global accessibility of European Regions with the example of travel times to New York, intermodal (minutes) 73 4.8 Change in mean commuting time 2005–2015 (in minutes) 75 4.9 Share of employed population with mean commuting time of more than one hour 76 5.1 Income concentration in cities by income group, 2017 87 5.2 Change in spatial segregation of major European cities, 2001–2011 88 6.1 Distribution of the population by degree of urbanisation, 2015 101 6.2 Perceived level of public transport services by level of urbanisation in the EU 103 7.1 Average duration of commuting time one-way between work and home by gender (15–64), 2015 118 8.1 People at risk of poverty or social exclusion, EU-27 and EU-28, 2005 – 2015 (million people) 126 8.2 People at risk of poverty or social exclusion, by country, in 2008 and 2015 (% of population) 127 Figures xii Figures 8.3 Unemployment rates, seasonally adjusted, February 2018 (%) 129 9.1 Conceptual model of mobility while ageing 136 9.2 Age and activity level of the profiles of older people 139 9.3 Causes of traffic accidents with physical injury for age group 75 and older 141 10.1 Share of disabled persons aged 15 and over reporting a disability in the specified life areas, by gender, EU-27, 2012 (estimates) (as a percentage of persons reporting a disability in at least one area) 151 10.2 Accessibility for all 156 10.3 Share of disabled persons aged 15 and over with a disability in the specified life areas, by educational attainment, EU-27, 2012 (as a percentage of persons reporting a disability in at least one area) 157 11.1 Share of Immigrants in EU Member States, 2018 163 11.2 Share of non-nationals in the resident population, 1 January 2019 164 11.3 Distribution of foreign-born inhabitants by age, selected urban regions, 2011 (% of foreign-born inhabitants) 167 11.4 Die Fahrradfüchse (“bicycle foxes”) is a volunteer organisation in the town of Donzdorf in southern Germany. With support from the municipality, it offers bicycle repair and maintenance facilities for refugees. These facilities are also open to other low-income persons in the region 173 11.5 Focus group session with refugees in Esslingen (Neckar)/ Germany 173 11.6 Focus group session with migrants and refugees in Luxembourg 174 12.1 Young population distribution in EU countries, 2017 181 12.2 The influence of modern life on children’s walking and cycling levels 183 13.1 Map with the location of the municipality of Guarda 196 14.1 Italian Inner Areas and perimeter of the strategy area of Southern Salento – Cape of Leuca 206 15.1 Map indicating the island of Naxos 218 15.2 Map of Naxos 219 16.1 Map of the city of Buz ă u and surrounding areas 228 17.1 Map of the study region of Esslingen/Neckar 239 19.1 Impact of material deprivation on mobility poverty 268 19.2 High risk of social exclusion due to mobility poverty 269 19.3 Approaches to alleviating mobility poverty 271 19.4 Road map to alleviating mobility poverty 272 0.1 Fieldwork study regions with spatial layers and vulnerable groups addressed 13 10.1 Overview of data sources for EU statistics on disability 149 10.2 Share of disabled persons aged 15 and over reporting a disability in the specified life areas, 2012 (as a percentage of persons reporting a disability in at least one area) 150 11.1 Foreign-born population by country of birth, 1 January 2017 165 12.1 Causal factors for the changes in young adults’ travel behaviour 186 13.1 Key indicators for Guarda compared to the average for Portugal 197 19.1 Opportunities and challenges to alleviating mobility poverty in the study regions 267 Tables Stefano Borgato (MSc in Environmental and Land Planning Engineering, MA in Urban Studies) has more than five years’ experience in trans- port planning, research in innovative modes of transportation and sustainability-related projects. Since 2018, he has been working as a Transport Planner and Policy Analyst for TRT Trasporti e Territorio in Milan. Simone Bosetti (MSc in Civil Engineering – Transport) has 20 years’ experi- ence in transport planning at international, regional and local levels. On behalf of TRT Trasporti e Territorio, he is the Coordinator of the HiRe- ach project, funded under the EU Horizon 2020 research programme, concerning transport equity and inclusion. Cosimo Chiffi (MSc in Maritime and Transport Economics) has 15 years’ experience in transport policy analysis and economics. His expertise lies in transport demand analysis, mobility planning, environmen- tal and socio- economic assessment of transport projects and policies. Since 2005, he has been working as a Consultant for TRT Trasporti e Territorio. Patrick van Egmond has an MSc in Business and Transport Economics from the Free University of Amsterdam (2001). Patrick is the CEO of LuxMo- bility, a Luxembourgish based consultancy. He manages several teams in Europe and Africa in the fields of transport, logistics, rural and urban mobility and smart cities. André Freitas graduated in Sociology (2006) with post-graduate qualifica- tions in Planning and Human Resources. Since 2018, he has been working as a Consultant for TIS, most notably on the HiReach project, working with vulnerable social groups and investigating the feasibility of new dig- ital solutions tailored to their needs. Razvan Andrei Gheorghiu is a Senior Lecturer and Researcher at the De- partment of Electronics in Transport of the “Politehnica” University of Bucharest. With over 15 years’ experience, his areas of interest include Contributor biographies xvi Contributor biographies Intelligent Transport Systems and Computer Science. He is the author of over 50 academic articles and five books. Delphine Grandsart is a Senior Researcher for the European Passengers’ Federation. She has worked on several research projects including USEmobility, IT2Rail, GOF4R, CIPTEC and HiReach, where she was co-author of reports on diverse topics such as transport poverty, user groups’ needs, passenger rights, market uptake of new mobility services and technologies. Valentin Iordache is a Senior Lecturer and Researcher at the Department of Electronics in Transport of the “Politehnica” University of Bucharest. With over 17 years’ experience, his areas of interest include intelligent transport systems, sensors and data acquisition and computer networks. He is the author of over 30 academic articles and three books. Akrivi Vivian Kiousi is a Senior Innovation Manager at INTRASOFT In- ternational S.A. and Head of the Transport Lab in its Research and In- novation Development Department. She has 20 years’ experience in the field of big data, transport, telecommunications, e-government, human computer interaction, internet based technologies, community portals, promotion and dissemination strategies. Mariza Konidi is a Communication and Project Management Specialist in the Research and Innovation Department of INTRASOFT Interna- tional. She has been involved in implementing and leading dissemination- related activities in research projects. Mariza brings more than ten years’ experience, with a strong background in marketing, communications and project management. Tobias Kuttler is a geographer and urban planner, researching urban devel- opment, mobility and social disadvantage. He is a Research Associate at Technische Universität Berlin and PhD candidate at the Technical Uni- versity of Munich. He is currently writing his PhD dissertation on the transformation of the taxi industry in Mumbai, India. Silvia Maffii (PhD in Urban and Regional Planning) has extensive profes- sional and research experience in transport economics and planning. Since 1992, she has been the co-founder and Managing Director of TRT Trasporti e Territorio. Her main expertise lies in open issues in transport policies, cost-benefit analysis and socio-economic impacts assessment. Patrizia Malgieri (PhD in Urban and Regional Planning) has more than 25 years’ experience in transport and mobility planning. She has extensive knowledge of urban and regional transport plans, mobility projects and research activities mainly in the fields of sustainable and gender mobil- ity. She is the Director of the urban transport planning division at TRT Trasporti e Territorio. Contributor biographies xvii Massimo Moraglio (PhD) is a Senior Researcher at Technische Univer- sität Berlin and Coordinator of the MBA “Sustainable Mobility”. His work explores the relationship between technology and society, focusing on scenarios and transitions. He is a member of the editorial board of Mobilities and Applied Mobilities , and editor-in-chief of The Journal of Transport History Vasco Reis is an experienced researcher and consultant. Combining practi- cal industry experience with deep academic research, he provides innova- tive insights about the present and future of mobility and transportation systems. His experience includes the participation in and management of more than 30 projects and authorship of over 70 peer-reviewed publications. Dariya Rublova is involved in European and Greek research projects fo- cused on regional development and technological change, innovation policy and development, transport and sustainable mobility and web en- trepreneurship. She studied Economic Sciences and completed her MSc in Applied Economics and Finance at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. Mimi Sheller, PhD, is Professor of Sociology and founding Director of the Center for Mobilities Research and Policy at Drexel University in Phila- delphia. She is founding co-editor of the journal Mobilities and past Pres- ident of the International Association for the History of Transport, Traffic and Mobility . She is the author of several books on mobility. Joanne Wirtz has an MA in Geography and Spatial Planning, with a special- isation in geographical modelling, from the University of Luxembourg and a BSc in Geography, with a specialisation in urban and regional planning, from the University of Bonn. She currently works as a Mobility and Transport Consultant and Principal Researcher for LuxMobility. Apart from the authors of this volume, the following persons contributed to this publication project by performing fieldwork in the respective coun- tries: Norman Döge, Valentina Fava, Mahendra Singh Chouhan, Johanna Helene Ostendorf (Technische Universität Berlin, Germany), Andrea Selan (TRT, Italy), Martin Kracheel, François Sprumont (LUXM, Luxembourg), Maggie Poupli (INTRA, Greece), Susana Castelo, Fátima Santos (TIS, Portugal). The book editors and authors express their gratitude to all the contributors. The book editors and authors are highly indebted to the fieldwork partic- ipants, especially the focus group participants, who generously opened up to the research teams and provided first hand experiences and information. The editors and authors would like to thank the following institutions and their representatives: • Germany: Municipality of Wendlingen, Citizen bus umbrella organisa- tion “proBürgerbus” Baden-Württemberg, Kreisseniorenrat Esslingen (County seniors’ council), volunteer ridesharing initiative “SuseMo- bil” Filderstadt, Municipality of Aichwald, Bürgerbus Aichwald (citi- zen bus initiative), Municipality of Frickenhausen, Arbeiterwohlfahrt (Workers’ Welfare Association) Esslingen, Social service for refugees of Esslingen county, Voluntary mobility initiative for refugees “Fahr- radfüchse” (bicycle foxes) Donzdorf, Municipality of Donzdorf, Min- istry for Transport Baden-Württemberg – Division for digitisation and mobility in rural areas, Transport Department of County of Esslingen, Transport Authority Metropolitan Region Stuttgart VVS • Greece: Gymnasium of Chalkeio, Technical and Professional Lyceum, Filoti – Naxos, 1st Primary School of Naxos, Taxi company owner/Pres- ident of the Skadou Village Community, Local Bus Naxos, Municipal- ity of Naxos and Small Cyclades, Express Skopelitis ferry boat – Small Cyclades Line, Centre of Creative Work for People with Disabilities • Italy: Coop Terrarossa, Fondazione Le Costantine, Rete SanFra, Co- mune di Patù, Consigliera Nazionale di Parità, Calzaturificio Sud Salento, Università di Lecce, Ferrovie Sud-Est SpA, ASL Lecce – Comitato Unico di Garanzia Acknowledgements