Ramie, Rhea, China Grass or Nettle fibre. (Reprint of 4 articles which appeared in "The Textile Mercury," May-June, 1900) - Barraclough, Thomas.

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RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS or NETTLE FIBRE. By THOMAS BARRACLOUGH, 20, BUCKLERSBURY, LONDON, E.C n MANCHESTER : i MAR3DEN & CO., LTD., MERCURY WORKS, CARR STREET, BLACKFRIARS. i RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS or NETTLE FIBRE. " A Reprint of four A rticlcs which appeared in " The Textile Mercury of 26th May, and 2nd, 9th, and 16th June, 1900. By THOMAS BARRACLOUGH. ' \ ," MANCHESTER MARSDEN & CO., LTD.. MERCURY WORKS CARR STREET, BLACKFRIARS. Utin Lib", RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE/ I have been deeply interested in the above Since the date of my paper considerable pro- fibre formany years. It has had a fascination gress has been made in the treatment of the for me. Long acquaintance with its many re- fibre and in the manufacture of ramie yarns and markable qualities, coupled with regret that it goods. Therefore I venture to think that the has for so long been the victim of unfortunate time is opportune for placing before those who circumstances and influences, has not dimin- are interested in the fibre some additional in- ished either my interest in it or my faith in its formation respecting its present position and ultimate triumph. In March, 1897, by request, prospects in the textile world and the progress I read a paper on " Ramie " at the Imperial that has been made in its manufacture. In Institute, London, under the auspices of the preparing these notes I have felt it my duty to Society of Arts. Some extracts from the paper take cognisance of the following questions fre- " will be found in the appendix marked A." quently asked, especially in England, the Uni- They relate mainly to matters which, are not ted States, Germany, and France Why has : included in these notes or are onlv incidentally ramie hitherto failed to come to the front and referred to. They may be of value to some become one of the leading fibres in the textile readers interested in the cultivation of ramie, manufacturing world? Why is it still viewed and therefore I have thought it desirable to re- with disfavour in certain circles, more especi- produce them. ally in financial circles ? Why do people shrug By the kindness of the two leading spinnerV their shoulders when ramie is mentioned and and manufacturers of ramie, I was enabled to attribute to it defects of which it is entirely in- place before the audience a large and very nocent 2 Here is a grand fibre under a cloud ; varied assortment of samples of the fibre in there must be some causes for it. Can these various stages of manufacture in its degi/mmed causes be explained and removed ; if so, by what state, as filasse ; in slivers, before and after means ? The answer is decidedly in the affirma- combing in the form of top (long fibre) and in ; tive, and these notes are intended to show that ' the form of noils (short fibre) also in slub- ; ramie, with all its valuable qualities, can be bings, rovings, and yarns of many qualities, manufactured into a great variety of goods with from coarse to extremely fine counts. Finally, very substantial profit, providing that manufac- there were samples of a great variety of goods turers have a full technical knowledge of the woven, netted, knitted, made into lace, thread, fibre, combined with the possession of etc., etc. The samples created very general machinery specially adapted to its treatment. interest, and being the most complete and Before proceeding to give proof of so import- representative collection ever placed before the ant a matter, it will be advantageous to first public, an opportunity was given of realising mention some of the reasons for the present pre- practically the value and beauty of the fibre and judices against so valuable a fibre. To detail its adaptability for being manufactured into a and explain them is, in my opinion, the best very wide and diversified assortment of goods. means of refuting them, because they are due The time at my disposal compelling me to keep to causes and influences mostly outside the fibre the paper within narrow limits, I dwelt princi- and for which the fibre cannot be held respon- pally on the cultivation of the plant and the sible. It is only by looking the facts and in- decortication of the stems, as the cheapest and fluences fairly in the face and dispassionately best mode of producing the raw fibre seemed examining the causesof past failures that one can to me at the time to be the most important arrive at an impartial estimate of what ought part of the subject. I dealt but shortly with to be the position and the value of ramie in the the manufacturing processes and the general textile manufacturing world. By carefully position of ramie in the manufacturing world. pointing out and accurately defining these ved. ^ CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE. causes, a foundation is laid for building up a (2) The difficulties experienced in dealing of the remarkable qualities 1 effectively with these peculiarities. proper appreciation and the immense value of ramie. Textile manu- (3) The fact that several of the manufac- facturers must of necessity be constantly on the turing and other operations are interdependent look out for something new. A trade which one on the other, and therefore seriously in- ministers in so large a degree, not only to the fluence each other. necessitiesbut also to the luxuries and fashions (4) The impossibility of obtaining in past of the world, must undoubtedly be ever pre- years large and regular supplies of the fibre. pared to take advantage of new materials, new (5) Financial causes. modes and pro( e>M>^ of manufacture, new de- Dealing first with the general absence of signs, new and new styles of colours and dyes, knowledge that formerly prevailed, I would re- finish. Therefore, it would have been strange mark that many manufacturers took up the new if the textile manufacturing world had not fibre with avidity and made it the basis of been moved by the advent of ramie many years manufacturing experiments and even speculative ago. It was to them a new fibre its remark- ; enterprises, but the results in nearly all cases able qualities were soon ascertained, and many were failure, loss of money, and disappointment. very extravagant hopes and expectations were They had gone to work very energetically but formed concerning the adaptability of it for an without discretion, not realising that this fibre, immense variety of manufacturing purposes, like all others, has its peculiarities, which must both alone and also in combination with other be carefully studied and taken into considera- textiles, vegetable and animal. tion if success is to attend the efforts to manu- Paradoxical as seem, the exceptionally it may facture it. An absolutely new fibre naturally needs a new system of treatment and special good qualities of ramie may be said to have been in a small degree the cause of its compara- machinery and plant. Many manufacturers tive failure to take its proper place in the tex- tried to work ramie en their existing machinery, tile industry. I enumerate some of these quali- which was designed for flax, cotton, silk, or ties It has worsted, etc., all these textiles having qualities (A) A strength very much greater than that differing in respects from many important ramie. Failure and disappointment were the of any other fibre a quality much appreciated in many branches of textile manufacturing, i result, because impossibilities were expected. especially where strength of yarn is of the ut- The preparation and manufacture of cotton, most importance. I wool, flax, jute, silk, etc., now arrived at so (B) A lustre almost equal to that of silk great a state of perfection, are the results of the inventive talent and the practical work in superior to the lustre of the lower fact, thus enabling it to be used of large numbers of men extending over many qualities of silk ; The peculiarities of each textile had in conjunction with silk and even to compete years. to be discovered and studied and the special with it. means (mechanical and otherwise) necessary (c) An extraordinary length of filament, to deal with it had during many years to be amounting to 14 and even to 16 inches, thus invented, tested, and by degrees brought to enabling it to be spun into very fine yarns with relative perfection. The consequence is that the minimum of twist, so as to preserve its the machinery and plant of to-day are thor- lustre to the fullest extent. oughly well adapted to all the various pecu- (D) A remarkable facility for taking colours liarities of each fibre and the requirements of freely and retaining them, thus fitting it ad- each trade and class of goods. There existed mirably for being dyed and printed in all man- ner of goods. among the manufacturers interested in these fibres an earnest desire to obtain the best A non-liability to rot when immersed in (E) possible machines for manufacturing them ; water. For this reason it is especially adapted consequently the study of their special quali- for the manufacture of sailcloth, ropes, cords, ties, the series of experiments carried out at fishing lines, etc., etc, great cost, the inventive talent applied to tho Dealing now with the causes of its failure in processes, and the determination to succeed, pa-t years, I enumerate five principal one caused the difficulties to disappear, and year follows : after year valuable improvements were made (1) The general absence of knowledge con- in the machinery with the view of enabling it < ernini: the nature and peculiarities of the fibre. to produce larger quantities of better and more RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE* varied classes of goods in a given time, at the to the fibre a harshness more or less developed. same time employing the least possible manual The use of chemicals in the treatment of fibres labour by making the machines as automatic has generally a tendency to produce brittleness as possible. and harshness. This tendency had to be overcome It will be evident that the same principle by using with great discretion the very mini- applied to the machinery and apparata for mum of chemical treatment in degumming and working ramie must of necessity produce like by softening the fibre afterwards. The same results, and the time has now arrived when remark applies in the case of wool, which, one is justified in saying that the ignorance after washing with chemicals, needs the appli- of the past is rapidly disappearing and that a cation of oil previous to passing through the full knowledge of ramie is taking its place. machines, in order to soften it and enable it to During the last ten or twelve years practical pass freely and quickly through the various men of experience have been carefully study- mechanical processes. Another difficulty arose ing ramie both from a scientific and a practical from the fact that ramie fibre is composed of point of view, and by means of experiments, filaments of serious diversities of length say, in some cases quietly and unobtrusively car- from 1^ inch up to 14 and even 16 inches. To ried out, have gained such a knowledge of the pass simultaneously fibres of such varying fibre and the means of treating it through the lengths through the machinery in a practical various stages of its manufacture that the manner was not possible ; therefore means had whole process may now be regarded as being to be invented for successfully overcoming this placed on a thoroughly practical footing. difficulty. There can be no royal road to any manufac- The third cause of failure was also serious. turing success. In the case of ramie, by care- For some years I have been endeavouring to fully studying the peculiar qualities of the lessen the evil effects of it by getting the fibre and overcoming the chemical difficulties growers of the fibre, who have also to decorti- of the degumming and softening processes, and cate it, to meet in conference the manufac- by studying the mechanical requirements turers of ramie, so that each class can point necessary to treat it successfully in all the out to the other how to overcome the difficul- various stages from the raw material to the ties experienced (see Appendix B). I have finished goods, success has been attained. In dealt at some length with this matter in de- the remarks which follow I have endeavoured, scribing the manufacturing processes, and speaking generally, to point out difficulties therefore I summarise here this cause of fail- overcome and processes and machinery adap- ure in past years as due to the isolated and ted for the particular purposes in view, and independent action of the persons actively in- I believe that the successful manufacture of terested in ramie and the absence of combined ramie is now an assured fact. Ramie has knowledge and co-operation. Thus the fibre entered into a new phase and the time is at grower failed to realise that he seriously in- hand when it may be expected to become creased the difficulties of the chemist through a very important and leading fibre in the imperfect decortication, by sending to the textile world. market fibre bruised and full of skin, wood, Referring to the second cause, I desire to etc., thus rendering the degumming a slow and point out that ramie fibre presented several difficult process and necessitating undue serious difficulties in the way of its successful of in addition to strength chemicals, many treatment. One of these difficulties is the fact complicated and expensive operations. Fur- that the separate filaments of ramie are, by thermore, the grower entirely ignored the fact reason of their form and construction, not that his fibre would have to pass through the congenial to each other they partake largely : combing process, and that if its decortication of the nature of hairs. The consequence is was defective, the combing machine would in- that the filaments have no natural affinity or evitably prove it. Properly decorticated j tendency to adhere or cling together. Their | ramie for instance, china grass which has tendency is rather to go each its own way, been decorticated fey hand labour ought to hence the serious difficulties experienced in give, after combing, about 70 per cent, of long forming the slivers, the roving.s, and the yarn. I fibre and about 30 per cent, of short fibre This tendency is liable to be increased by the I (noils) ;but if the fibre has been bruised and treatment received during the degumming pro- damaged by decorticating machines of imper- cess, which, if unskilfully carried out, imparts fect construction, the result is only from 30 RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE. fibre and 70 and others have unfortunately sus- per cent, to 50 per cent, of long capitalists tained serious losses by embarking in erratic per cent, to 50 per cent, of short fibre (noils). The chemist responsible for the degumming schemes prepared by persons imperfectly process in like manner ignored the after pro- acquainted with, and often quite ignorant of cesses and paid little or no regard to what the the nature of the fibre its peculiarities and fibre had to undergo when it left his hands. If good qualities. Many of these persons have been mainly, if not solely, animated by the de- the degummed fibre became harsh and brittle sire to sell at enormous prices patents, pro- through his defective treatment, it would not pass freely through the preparing and drawing cesses, machines, etc., to capitalists and com- The fair reputation of ramie has also machinery at even one-third of its proper panies. the amount of waste produced was often been injuriously affected by well-mean- speed ; enormous and the combing operation showed ing persons who, having failed to thoroughly only a small percentage of long fibre and an ab- study all its characteristics and peculiarities, normally large percentage of short fibre. De- have invented processes or machines for dealing Active degumming has also in many cases led to with isolated portions only of the treatment, heavy losses through (A) the use of improper irrespective of the remainder. Thus the in- chemicals, or of suitable chemicals, but in un- ventor or owner of a patent for a ramie decor- suitable strength and (B) the imperfect wash- ; ticating machine has entirely ignored the fact ing of the fibre and freeing from acid, thereby that the ramie must, after decortication, be causing the yarns and goods in a short time to degummed, softened, combed, etc. In like lose their colour and strength and frequently manner the inventor or owner of a patented to become rotten and worthless. Imagine the degumming process has introduced his patent, feelings of a merchant who, having bought one entirely failing or not being willing to see that hundred pieces of ramie cloth and put them the combing, manufacturing, and dyeing pro- into stock or shipped them to a foreign custo- cesses stand in intimate relationship to the de- mer, learned to his dismay in two or three gumming process, and are in a measure de- months' time that the goods were discoloured or pendent on its efficacy for success. rotten and valueless. Can anyone be sur- Ramie has indeed been the victim of enemies prised that in past years ramie had many ene- who were rarely heard of in the days when mies? Imperfect combing has also been the machines were being invented for manufac- cause of many serious difficulties in the roving turing flax, cotton, jute, etc. These enemies and spinning processes. are the speculative inventor, the professional With regard to the fourth cause of failure, it director, the company promoter, and their is obvious that an ample supply of raw allies, whose action in forming companies and materials at all times available is an absolute asking the public to subscribe large sums in necessity for all branches of successful manu- order to carry out what in most cases can facture. Unfortunately this has not been the justly be termed ignorant visionary schemes case with ramie. China grass has been avail- involving immense losses, has undoubtedly able, but the supply has been irregular and been one of the main causes of. the public intermittent and the prices have been, as a viewing with disfavour ramie manufacturing rule, much too high and subject to great and enterprises. irregular variations. Growers of ramie lost Having thus described the leading causes of heart and gave up the cultivation, partly be- failure and some of the remedies already cause of the small demand and partly because applied and being applied, I now pass on to they did not send it into the market in a con- the manufacturing operations, but before doing dition to ensure remunerative prices. On the so I will devote a few lines to the ramie plant other hand, spinners and manufacturers inter- and the decorticating process. I do not pro- ested in ramie were not encouraged to make pose to describe the plant botanically or to large outlays on new machinery because of the dwell on its cultivation, but desire to draw uncertainty of obtaining a sufficient and regu- attention to the relative qualities of the two lar supply of the fibre at a moderate price. leading ramie fibre producing species Boeh- This difficulty has required time and publicity meria tenacissima and Boehmeria nivea. These for its removal. two descriptions of ramie are frequently dis- The cause of failure, and by no means fifth " " " tinguished by the terms green and white." the least important, must be justly attributed The fibre is known under four designations to financial reasons. A large number of namely, rhea, ramie, china grass, and nettle RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE. fibre, the latter principally in the United (A) To decorticate the green stems and pro- States. Rhea is generally considered to be the duce from them fibre fully equal to that pro- green-leaved member of the Boehmeria family duced by the best hand labour in China. The and ramie the white-leaved description. China fibre must be free from shieve or woody parts : grass was formerly supposed to consist only of the outer skin of the stem must be entirely the white-leaved description, but a more inti- removed and the minimum of gum left in the mate knowledge of the growth of the plant in fibre. China grass (ramie decorticated by China has proved that both Boehmeria tenacis- hand in China) usually contains gum equal to sima (green-leaved ramie) and Boehmeria nivea about 30 per cent, of its weight, but a good (white-leaved ramie) grow in China, and the decorticating machine ought not to leave more fibre extracted from them is indiscriminately than about 20 per cent, of gum in the fibre. known as China grass. This freeing from the shieve or wood and the The fibre of Boehmeria tenacissima is, gener- skin and the reduction in the percentage of ally speaking, not quite as fine as that of gum are of the utmost importance, because Boehmeria nivea ; it is, however, somewhat the subsequent degumming operations are stronger. It spins well into yarn, but, as the "thereby greatly facilitated, shortened, and filaments are not so fine, the yarns cannot be cheapened. spun quite as fine as those of the white (B) To avoid bruising the fibre. China variety. On the other hand, the Boehmeria grass, as already produces, with a stated, nivea (or white description) although not quite really good combing machine, 70 per cent, of so strong as the Boehmeria tenacissima, has long fibre (top) and 30 per cent, of short the advantage of being able to be spun into fibre (noils), but in many cases the fibre, re- somewhat finer yarn, necessitating a little sulting from treatment by unpractical and im- more careful treating in the manufacturing perfect decorticating machines, has shown after operations. It is generally considered to have the combing process only about from 30 to 50 a better colour than Boehmeria tenacissima. per cent, of long fibre and about from 50 to The difference in the relative filament length 70 per cent, of short fibre a sure test of the of the two descriptions is not great, and it lamentable results of being bruised, broken, may truly be said of both that no fibre can and shortened by bad decortication. compare with them in strength. Both fibres It will thus be seen how intimate ought to have the same degree of lustre. Some manu- be the relations between the decorticating, de- facturers prefer the one, some the other de- gumming, and combing processes, and how im- scription, partly from choice and partly from possible it judge of the efficiency or is to habit, this arising from the fact that they otherwise of any decorticating machine solely have become more familiar with and perhaps by the appearance of the fibre it produces. more successful in the treatment of the one Not until the decorticated fibre has passed than the other. through the degumming and combing processes DECORTICATING . can an accurate and reliable opinion be formed The first which the green stems process concerning the efficiency of the decorticating machine that has been used. This is a matter undergo when cut down is decortication, and of primary importance, and yet it has too although this does not strictly belong to the manufacturing branch, it being in reality an frequently been ignored by inventors and in- troducers of ramie decorticating machines. agricultural operation, it needs mention here because of its intimate connection with and MANUFACTURE. influence on the subsequent manufacturing I now pass on to manufacturing operations, operations. A large number of decorticating commencing with the fibre in the condition in machines have been invented and tried, some which it is generally sent tomarket under " " of them with very disappointing results, the name of China grass and " ramie," as arising from the fact that most of the inven- produced by the best decorticating machines, tors, either from ignorance or disregard of free from skin, wood, and extraneous matters. the facts, have treated decortication as an in- DEGUMMING. dependent process, whereas it has a very inti- After the bales of ramie or China grass are mate relation to and influence on the subse- opened, the filasse is carefully sorted, gener- quent degumming and combing processes. A ally by female labour, into batches, according really practical ramie decorticating machine to the various qualities of length, colour, and ought freedom from extraneous matters. The batches RAMIE, RHEA, GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE. of like quality are then placed in the degum- number of processes for degumming ramie have ining kiers or vats, in which the filasse is been invented and patented, and the names of treated by steam, water, and chemicals in such the chemicals suggested are legion. Many of a way that the gum is dissolved and removed, these processes have proved to be failures, leaving the fibre free from gum, skin, dirt, being mainly the result of laboratory experi- chemicals, .etc. The essentials for a successful ments. degumming operation are Plenty of pure : In degumming ramie the following import- water and steam and a set of machines and ant conditions must of necessity be observed : apparata constructed so as to enable the masse The must not attack the the most (A) process to be thoroughly treated in strength of the fibre. economical manner,. and with the least possible The fibre has naturally a beautiful handling. Under no circumstances must the (B) fibre be seriously affected by the treatment. lustre, almost if not quite equal to silk ; this Its enormous strength, its splendid lustre and lustre must be retained, and nothing in the softness, must remain the same after the de- process which the filasse undergoes must affect as before it its lustre or render it harsh and difficult to gumming process consequently ; the chemicals used must be of such a nature pass through the machinery. and of so slight a degree of strength as to (c) Ramie, when properly degummed, takes accomplish the removal of the gum without dyes freely (notably all the finer dyes) and deterioration of the filasse in any respect. The lends itself freely to the absorption of the process, when properly understood, is neither brightest colours quite on an equality with silk, complicated nor difficult, and needs principally retaining at the same time its beautiful lustre ; care and a practical mode of treatment. The consequently this quality of receiving and re- machinery used, in addition to the kiers or taining colours must not be affected by the vats, comprises washing machines, hydro-ex- degumming process. tractors, squeezers, pumps, etc. These need (D) The degumming process must not only not be of very special construction. be of a nature to cause the fibre to retain The main art of successfully degumming its strength, lustre, and colour at the time ramie the use of suitable chemicals in lies in of manufacture, but also for years afterwards. very weak solution and in the thorough wash- An immense amount of unfounded pre- ing of the filasse in the last stage of the de- judice has been created against ramie gumming process. The filasse then usually and ramie goods through imperfect treat- undergoes bleaching, for which no special plant ment and defective degumming. Spinners is required it may be bleached in the same : and manufacturers have experienced heavy way as cotton or flax. There is a diversity of losses through ramie yarns and goods opinion as to the degree of chemical bleaching having, after a few months' time, lost their to be applied to ramie and the stage at which strength, lustre, and colour and become rotten it is best carried out. Some manufacturers and worthless. These disastrous results have prefer to complete the process immediately the been in many cases ignorantly attributed to filasse is others prefer to half degummed ; some natural defects of ramie fibre they were, ; bleach the filasse and to complete the bleach- however, due solely to defective degumming ing on the grass in the same way as linen and bleaching. Ramie goods are as lasting as goods are bleached. Others again prefer to any textile goods, as has been fully proved. leave the bleaching process to a later stage For instance, the Chinese have used the fibre say, when the filasse has been spun into yarn for many centuries, and their many hundred and made up into goods. For a great variety old fabrics years exhibit marvellous lasting of purposes no bleaching whatever is required, qualities, quite equal to the flax mummy because some goods are generally sold and used cloths. in the grey state : for instance, many kinds (E) Finally, and this is of great importance, of linings, canvas, sailcloths, etc., also ropes, the degumming and bleaching processes used cords, lines, twine, etc. must be capable of being carried out easily, One very important matter to be observed quickly, and in an economical manner, so as in connection with the bleaching of ramie to be a commercial success. Some of the filasse, yarn, and goods is to free them ab- patented degumming processes, -even if success- from chemicals by solutely efficient neutralising ful in practice, are prohibitive by reason of and by copious washings, etc. A very large their enormous cost and complicated treatment. RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE. 9 PREPARING AND SOFTENING. COMBING. Before passing the filasse on to further pro- These then fed automatically into the slivers are cesses it is very desirable, in fact almost combing machines, the fibres are automatically necessary, to thoroughly impregnate it with a combed, separated into their various qualities, substance called in the trade "prepare," by and delivered by the machines into cans in the- means of which it is rendered more elastic and form of slivers, which then undergo the fur- more capable of passing easily through all the ther processes of drawing, doubling, and' various machines hereinafter referred to. This equalising. As already the combing stated, process has another important object namely, process is of vital importance, because it in- to prepare the filasse in such a manner that fluences the working of all the following all the machines can be run at their maximum machines both as regards quality and quantity speed, with the view of obtaining the utmost of the yarn produced a'nd economy of produc- possible production, and at the same time with tion. the minimum of waste. The preparing process The reputation of ramie has unfortunately has a tendency to slightly stiffen the fibres ; suffered severely through the employment of consequently the filasse is passed through a defective combing machines, some of which leave a considerable amount of short fibre special softening machine, the operation of which results in the fibres becoming thoroughly (noil) and extraneous matter in the finished This is an important sliver of long fibre (top), thereby preventing soft, free, and ductile. when carried the spinning machines from producing good, stage of the preparation, because, out efficiently by a really good lubricating pre- clean, and level yarn. Other combing machines pare, it very greatly facilitates the passage of damage the fibre during the combing process the fibre at full speed through all the subse- by breaking and shortening it, thereby re- quent machines, and thereby reduces the | ducing its quality and value and increasing the amount of waste produced to the very mini- amount of waste. There are also some comb- mum. ing machines to which the previous criticism Too much importance cannot be attached to applies only in a minor degree their chief de- a thoroughly practical treatment of the filasse fect is the smallness of their production and in the initial stage, because when the treat- the costly nature of the attendant labour, ment is well adapted to the nature and pecu- rendering them almost prohibitive from a com- liarities of the fibre, all following processes are mercial point of view in a ramie mill. A so facilitated as to make the spinning of ramie really practical,well designed, and well con- a commercial success. If, on the other hand, structed ramie combing machine ought to pos- sess the following good qualities through lack of practical knowledge of the : peculiarities of the fibre, this initial preparing It must comb and sort the fibres into their process is ignored or not carefully carried out, various qualities and deliver each quality all the following operations must of necessity separate. be adversely affected. It may truly be said It must not break or shorten the fibre during that this softening operation and the combing ! the combing. operation, concerning which more later on, are It must thoroughly clean and free it from the two most important operations in the dirt and short fibre (noil). manufacture of ramie. It must give a large production about 300' After leaving the softening department, the Ib. a day. It must be capable of producing from pro- filasse, still in stricks, is fed by hand into a gill-spreading machine of special construction, perly prepared filasse about 70 per cent, of the object of which is to transform it into good quality long spinning fibre (top) and 30 slivers, which are then passed through a series per cent, of short fibre (noil). of other machines It must be so designed and constructed that special gill arranged in a it does not need skilled labour to attend it. set, whereby the slivers, during their passage through the various machines It must not be liable to break down or get in their proper are out of order the stoppage of combing sequence, opened ; out, simultaneously levelled, combined, machines for repairs involves not only very and made of equal thickness and loftiness, in expensive mechanical labour, but also a great I order to render them capable of being I lessening of the production of the mill. efficiently treated by the combing machines Before passing on to the next process a few with the least possible waste. words may be desirable respecting the noils or IO RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE. short fibre separated from the rest of the fibre in the highest qualities of ramie yarn that these are now ex- these hard ends should be entirely removed ; by the combing machine ; useful for and there otherwise they are liable to form inequalities ceedingly many purposes, is a large demand for them. They can be spun in the yarns, and the woven and other goods into an excellent serviceable yarn on ordinary produced from such yarns are liable to show a tow machinery, and as such their leading quali- speckled appearance after dyeing the hard : ties are strength and regularity. ends absorb more colour than the rest and are They are also mixed with other textiles, such as wool, cotton, non-lustrous. etc. These mixtures are very advantageous to In order to do away with this defect, the the manufacturer, as ramie noils impart not sliversintended for the very best quality yarns only great strength to the yarns and to the pass through a second combing operation and fabrics, but they improve the appearance of then through a set of special drawing or re- the goods through their lustre and through gilling machines, so as to free them from all the excellent and lasting colours which they the hard ends and make them suitable for take in the dyeing process. In most cases they spinning into the finest yarns for the highest reduce the cost of the goods, for ramie noils classes of expensive fancy goods, such as now find a ready sale at about 4d. to 5d. per brocades, union silks, imitation silk goods, etc. lb., according to the state of the market. It ROVING AND SPINNING. cannot be called a case of adulteration by Onleaving the drawing frames, the ramie bringing into the mixture something that is slivers or tapes are transferred to of inferior quality, but it is rather the effect- roving frames of special construction, which convert ing of a distinct improvement in the goods by them into rovings. These are then spun into adding a material of excellent value. Noils are also being spun satisfactorily on cotton yarns by the spinning frames. The roving and spinning frames for ramie differ in some essen- machinery. They are likewise used in a variety tial features from the ordinary machines used of other trades, such as the manufacture of for cotton, flax, worsted, or silk waste. In celluloids, etc. their construction are embodied some of the DRAWING. This is effected by passing the combed sli- most improved motions of the machines used vers through a series of gill-drawing machines for the above-mentioned textiles for instance, of special design, running at very high speeds, quick-running spindles, etc., to ensure a large in order to give the greatest possible produc- production of good work. There have been tion. The drawing processes require to be introduced into their design and construction carried out with considerable care and the result of ten years' experiments a num- judg- ment. For instance, the relative sizes of the ber of special mechanical improvem jnts, in sliversand the relative number of them fed order to adapt them for the treatment of the into and combined in each of the drawing peculiar qualities of the fibre, and designed to machines, must be duly proportioned in such a overcome the difficulties formerly experienced manner as to cause each machine to deliver a in roving and spinning ramie. -sliver or tape as level as possible for the suc- In describing the combing operations I made ceeding machine this applies to every machine ; special mention of the system of sorting or in the set of drawing frames. Want of care separating the fibre during the combing opera- at this stage cannot fail to be detrimental to tion into its various qualities. Experience has the after stages, because shown that the most improved method of irregular tape of necessity produces irregular rovings, and tltese dealing with the assorted slivers after comb- in their turn produce irregular yarns of dimin- ing is for each quality of fibre to be treated ished value. by passing separately through a set of draw- it Somedescriptions of ramie have aslight ing, and spinning machines designed roving, natural defect namely, what are called in the and constructed for that special quality. The trade "hard ends," these result is that ramie is now being spun very being in some cases fibres which have not developed to their full economically into the very best yarns of which length, but have grown somewhat thick and each quality of fibre is capable, consideration short; in other cases two or three fibres that being paid to strength, lustre, uniformity of have grown together. In the size, twist, speed of production, etc. ordinary process of good combing, these hard ends are to a This is a new departure in the manufacture large extent removed from the butslivers, of ramie and has added immensely to its value experience has shown that it is very desirable as a textile, because it has materially enlarged RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE. ii the field for its employment and goods are now It has also been found that sundry being manufactured from it which a short time modifications in the ordinary warping, ago were thought impossible or unsuitable. It winding, sizing, beaming, etc., machinery are enables the spinning machines to produce a wide ! necessary. range of counts of yarn in various qualities of DYEING AND FINISHING. fibre, and thus allows of the same being manu- The processes of dyeing, printing, and finish- factured into a great variety of goods, for j ing ramie goods are very diversified, according instance : ] to the various classes and qualities of goods, (A) The highest quality of fibre is spun into i Ramie goods take colour very freely, and con- yarns usegl in the manufacture of brocades, ! sequently are eminently adapted for dyeing damasks, fine tapestries, etc., plushes, velvets, j and printing. When woven into damasks, lace curtains, ladies' dress goods, silk and ; house linens, and similar goods, heretofore made ' ramie mixtures goods to supersede the highest of linen, they are finished in a manner similar qualities of linens, etc. j to that applied to linen goods. When woven (B) The medium quality of fibre is spun into brocades, pongees, dress goods, and simi- into yarns used in the manufacture of scarves, lar goods, heretofore made of silk, or when turbans, pongees, pocket handkerchiefs, vel- woven with a mixture of silk for instance, veteens, medium linens, hosiery, wool and silk warp and ramie weft or silk weft and ramie mixtures, sewing and other threads, fish- ! ramie warp the goods are finished in ing lines, fire engine hose, belting, girths, and much the same manner as silk goods. Between many other goods. I the above two branches many varieties of goods (c) The third quality of fibre is spun into | are made of ramie and wool, worsted, flax, and yarns used in the manufacture of ordinary cotton, and they are treated in the finishing woven goods of many descriptions, such as process in a manner similar to that employed canvas, sailcloth, towelling, and also for cords, I for the goods they compete with. The manu- lines, and a great variety of other goods. 1 facture of ramie into hosiery, curtains, sewing Ramie can be spun exceedingly fine into and crochet threads, cords of all kinds, fishing yarn say, No. 168's, having 50,400 yards to and other lines, twines, ropes, and similar the Ib. Fine yarns of this description used goods calls for no special remark, because the for the manufacture of the highest qualities of i ordinary modern machinery for making these goods rival silk yarns and are largely used to goods is well adapted for making them of supplant goods or to mix with silk yarns silk ramie. as, a ramie warp with silk weft for instance, COUNTS OF YARN. or a silk warp with ramie weft. In order to Various modes of describing the fineness of retain the full natural lustre of the fibre these yarns are in vogue. Some ramie spinners have yarns are spun with the very minimum of used the worsted scale, others the silk scale, twist. and others again the cotton scale. The fibre TWISTING, ETC. : bears a closer resemblance and has a nearer A considerable proportion of ramie yarns are relation in its character to flax than to any used in the doubled state ; the twisting is other fibre. It has therefore been found de- generally effected on flyer and ring twisting I sirable, in order to avoid confusion and facili- frames, but with some modifications and tate business, to adopt the flax scale in de- additions to ensure good work and great pro- scribing the counts or sizes of ramie yarns. duction. The same remark applies to the This scale has the additional advantage of machines for winding, gassing, reeling, and being simple and easily understood by non- foundling. technical persons. Ramie yarns are therefore WEAVING. divided into leas or hanks, each containing The weaving of ramie and of goods made 300 yards, and the number of hanks per Ib. of ramie mixed with silk, flax, wool, worsted, indicates the size of the yarn. Thus No. 60 etc., proving a great success. This branch is ramie yarn contains 60 hanks each of 300 of the manufacture has not presented the same I yards -18, 000 yards to the Ib. amount of difficulty as the preparing and spin- Speaking generally, the preparing, spinning, ning branches, nor is the divergence of ramie and weaving machinery for ramie is of such a looms from the ordinary construction of looms character that female labour can be very very great. Minor but necessary modifications largely employed in most of the manufacturing to adapt them for weaving ramie under favour- ' operations. The manufacture of ramie has in able circumstances have been introduced. the past been burdened with difficulties arising I 12 RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE. from the fact that the mills have not been self- Americans are quite alive to the value of contained that is to say, the manufacturer ramie. Buyers, especially in England, are to has not been in a position to carry out on his the fore, some because ramie yarns are so own premises the whole of the operations re- exceedingly strong and valuable for special pur- quired from the raw ramie to the finished poses, other because of the beautiful lustre of goods ready for the consumer. Some firms the yarns, so necessary in many descriptions of have degummed and combed the fibre and fancy goods, and others again because ramie offered it to the trade in the form of sliver. ! is able to satisfy requirements which no other Others have carried their operations a* little fibre can. Ramie mills are now being started further and have sold it in the form of rovings. even in Eastern countries Japan and China. Others have offered their yarns for sale to the Prejudice rapidly giving way to earnest, in- is weavers. In many cases remunerative prices telligent desire to give ramie a fair trial and were not obtainable because the buyers were to appreciate it according to its real value. unable or unwilling to purchase really high- I may instance the case of one manufacturer in class machinery specially adapted for carrying this country who informed me a few days ago out the further processes required. In all that he had been for some years on the look cases the ramie goods have been dyed, printed, out for a special yarn possessed of strength not | and finished by outside firms. previously obtainable. Having bought a quan- I would therefore strongly advise that, in tity of ramie roving he had spun it into yarn and found it exactly suited to his purpose. He starting mills for the manufacture of ramie, has just bought ten tons of ramie rovings and they should, wherever possible, be self-con- tained in other words, that the manufac- purposes spinning ramie yarns on a large scale. turing operations should include everything Manufacturers are now in a position to ob- from the raw material to the finished article tain the best ramie machinery as easily ready for sale to the consumer. In this way as they can obtain cotton or woollen the manufacturer has full control over all the machinery, and to produce ramie goods with operations, even the seemingly least important, the minimum of risk and the maximum of and is not exposed to failure through the ig- I profit. The days of ignorance are gone by, and norance or incapacity of outsiders. ramie seems at last to be taking a position in In conclusion, I may add that the signs of the textile world worthy of its goqd qualities. progress are unmistakeable. In Yorkshire I have been induced to write these notes as there is at present a very large demand for a contribution, however slight, to the know- ramie yarns of all classes. On the Continent ledge and progress of the manufacture of ramie. ramie manufacturers are having a very good I earnestly hope they will be found useful and time and their number is increasing. The encouraging to the friends of this grand fibre. RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE. APPENDIX A. The following are extracts from a paper on the "Cultivation and Manufacture of Rhea Fibre," read by me: The growth, production, and quality of ramie run no risk from floods. sufficiently elevated to vary very much, according to climate, soil, Moisture and warmth in the land depend mode of cultivation, and treatment of the fibre. largely upon moisture and warmth in the There are, therefore, many elements of uncer- atmosphere. Therefore, a plentiful rainfall is tainty such, for instance, as the cost and the indispensable, coupled with a high and even weight of the crop grown per acre, the number temperature. The rainfall must not only be of crops that can be obtained annually, and plentiful but it must be well distributed the percentage of fibre contained in the stems. throughout the year. The greatest enemy of My figures must be taken as representing a ramie after stagnant water is drought. Dry general average, liable to modifications, accord- heat burns it up drought kills it outright. ; ing to circumstances. What ramie requires is a naturally rich deep " Ramie, called in India rhea," and when soil, plenty of rain, and no extremes of tem- " grown and prepared in China known as China perature. grass," belongs to the family of nettles It was at one time generally supposed that (Urtica),and to the sub-division Boehmeria. the whole of India is suitable for growing rhea. There are many varieties of the plant, but the Such, however, is not the case. Districts in two which have been proved to be the best India, the climate and soil of which are in fibre-bearing species are B. Tenacissima, often accordance with the above requirements, can called the green-leaved ramie, and B. Nivea, produce any quantity of rhea, and if the often called the white-leaved ramie, on account authorities will foster and protect the culti- of the silvery appearance of the under side of vation, India will doubtless become one of the its leaves. The Nivea species is mostly culti- most important producers of rhea fibre. It is vated in China and Formosa, and the Tenacis- a perennial, giving from two to five crops an- sima in Jav, Sumatra, Borneo, Malacca, In- nually, and when well established on the land dia, Mexico, and other tropical countries. yields its crops for a succession of years. The Many attempts have been made to successfully roots became stronger and stronger each year cultivate ramie in temperate zones, and at as they spread through the soil, and the plant one time great expectations were raised as to becomes more and more productive. It yields the possibility of a crop the first year, if grown from seed. If successfully growing the fibre in France, Holland, and other countries en- planted from root-cuttings it can give two joying a similar climate, but these expecta- crops in the first year. Owing to the quantity tions have not been realised, as the of tannin in the bark plants are singularly free from it is not able to resist winter cold, unless protected insect pests and fungoid diseases. An estate to such a degree and at such an of 500 acres of ramie under good cultivation expense as to cause their cultivation to be too At and favourable circumstances ought to produce costly. one time it was expected that the cultivation yearly from 7,000 to 9,000 tons of green stems, of rhea in India would prove of immense bene- calculating four crops per year, of which about fit, but careful study and experience have 5 per cent, is fibre. shown that something more than a The leading qualities of ramie fibre may be merely tropical climate is required. summarised thus : Warm moisture is the first requisite to the (a) It is the strongest fibre known. The soilfor cultivation, but anything approaching comparative tensile strength of some of the stagnation of water on the land, even leading fibres may be known as follows : for a short period, is the ruin of an estate. Assuming the strength of ramie to be 100, the Plenty of water always in the soil and yet strength of hemp is 36 flax, 25 silk, 13 ; ; ; ready absorption of all that falls are true essen- and cotton, 12. tials in ramie land. This implies It the longest of all textile fibres. Its of friability (6) is surface soil to soak the in moisture and filaments range in length from 2^ in. up to porosity of the subsoil to absorb the excess 18 in. The filaments of flax vary in length of water or heavy rains. The land must be from % in. to 2^ in. RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE* (c) Ramie has a brilliancy or lustre fibre little patches of green here and there showed superior to that of other textile fibres.' In that germination had partially taken place, but all this respect it may be compared with silk, the sowing was practically a failure. I then which it almost equals. In certain classes of referred to the precepts given by ' The Im- goods only an expert can distinguish between perial Treatise of Chinese Agriculture ' on -the silk and ramie. When properly degummed, subject of the rearing of the plant. This work prepared, spun, and woven, this lustre is not says : " affected by the processes, but shines forth as For the purpose of sowing, a light sandy ' brightly in the woven piece as in the fibre. soil is preferred. The seeds are sown in a gar- (d) Ramie resists atmospheric influences den near a river or well. The ground is dug better than any other fibre. Air and water once or twice, then beds are made, and after have little influence on it, however long a time that the earth is again dug. The ground is exposed. This has been amply proved in the then pressed down with the back of a spade. case of fishing nets made of ramie, which have When it is a little firm it is slightly raked, the lasted far beyond any other material that has beds are watered, and again loosened with a fine ever been used for the purpose. rake, and finally levelled. After that a ching (e) It mixes easily and freely with silk, (a measure) of moist earth and a ho (a meas- wool, cotton, and flax, and the combinations ure) of seeds are taken and well mixed to- thus obtained are very valuable in point of gether. After having sown the seed it should colour, durability, and economy. not be covered with earth indeed, earth on ; (f) It takes colours freely in dyeing, and the top prevents germination. Cover with a the very best effects of colour are obtained slanting roof of matting. Before the seed be- without affecting the lustre. gins to germinate, or when the young leaves One of the difficulties that has impeded the first appear, the beds must not be watered. spread of the cultivation of ramie has been By means of a broom dipped in water the roof the planting. It has been assumed for many of matting is wetted so as to keep the ground years that the best way to propagate ramie was underneath moist. When the plants are about by means of stem or root cuttings. In order two inches high the roof may be laid aside. If to obtain these cuttings, plants have been pro- the earth is dry it must be slightly moistened cured with great difficulty and risk, and at to a depth of about 3 inches. A stiffer soil is great expense. Many people have been dis- now chosen and formed into beds, to which the couraged by the difficulties and the expense, young plants are to be transferred.' " and in many cases it has not been possible to I followed the Chinese method in all its obtain plants. Sowing has been tried in a few minuteness, with the most gratifying results. cases, but has resulted mostly in failure hence ; I have, therefore, no hesitation in stating that the idea that ramie is best propagated by cut- of the three modes of propagation open to the tings. ramie planter seed, stem, or root cuttings From a friend of large experience in the the first appears to me to be the most prac- East, have quite recently obtained special I tical, the cheapest, and probably the quickest information, which points to the fact that pro- in the case of a large estate." pagation by sowing has been rejected through Although one cannot go far wrong in ad- ignorance of the proper method of sowing. I hering closely to the Chinese text, I think, cannot do better than make known the result for the sake of conciseness, the following may of his practical knowledge and experience : be substituted for it Germinate the ramie : " It is commonly said that an ounce of seed in open boxes in a roofed house. Fill the practice is worth boxes with earth for top soil take a light loam, pounds of theory, and it may not be ; amiss to give here the results of my own ex- and pulverise it by passing it thoroughly perience in ramie propagation by seed. through a \ in. a slight admixture of sieve ; "It requires great care, but if the seed be burnt earth or dung will keep it moist without good, the results obtained are an ample reward its being necessary to water it for some days. for the trouble taken. My first attempt ended in Mix a small quantity of the seed with one failure. One month later I sowed some seed basketful of the prepared soil. Sprinkle this on a bed made of fine sifted earth with 'a slight soil over the earth in the boxes. Do not water admixture of well rotted cow dung the bed : until after five or six days (sometimes ten was well sheltered by a lallang roofing, and, in days), when the seminal leaves begin to appear. fine, every precaution was taken to ensure When watering, use a very fine rose. When the success. The result was far from satisfactory ; young seedlings are from 2 in. to 2^ in. high, RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE. transfer them to the nursery in specially-pre- 1880. Of this I have most precise and con- pared beds, planting them 3 in. apart. If clusive evidence recently given me by the pre- taken out with a ball of earth round their sent occupier of the estate. Mr. C. Riviere, roots they bear transplanting well, and from director of Hamma Garden, Algiers, says : " that time need only the usual amount of atten- Our trial to ramie from seed proved raise tion and care which all young plants require successful 250,000 fine plants were obtained, ; shading, watering, and weeding. remarkable mostly for their vigour, the size of Propagation by stem or root cuttings is gen- the foliage, the height of the stems, and the erally assumed to be the most expeditious, fine development of their roots." producing a crop more quickly than by sowing. Experience has shown that former ideas re- It may be so in the case of a small acreage specting the space required for plants need say, 500 acres. If 10,000 cuttings are procured modification. These were planted too far for purposes of propagation, one may, after six apart, and as a consequence the stems freely months (it is not advisable to do so before) threw out branches. Each branch breaks the obtain a supply of root and stem cuttings continuity of the fibres, and causes a larger say, twenty from each original stool which will proportion of short fibres. Too much space bring the number of cuttings up to 200,000, between the plants also favoursgrowth of capable of planting sixteen acres. Six weeds. months later, be ob- 4,000,000 cuttings imv Many enterprising men have put forth great tained, capable of stocking, under favourable endeavours to grow this fibre, and to bring it circumstances, about 315 acres. It will be into practicaluse, and their experience has fully eighteen months before the full acreage added materially to the general knowledge ; of 500 acres will be supplied. During that but the growth of practical knowledge has time there will have been but few, if any, stems been slow and the resulting failures many. One available for crop, as they will have been cut of the principal causes of this has been that up for purposes of propagation. each man in his department has been working It is known that propagation by cut- well with limited ideas, ignoring the fact that there tings apt to bring degeneration, and it is is must be a combined working together in order necessary from time to time to revert to seed to ensure success. The planter has in many to obtain a healthy stock of plants plants ; cases planted ramie without understanding its grown from seed possess the tap root, and are nature and requirements. The climate and the not so liable to spread their roots laterally to soil have been unsuitable, the treatment of an undue degree. This is shown by the prac- the plants mistaken, the means of turning the tice followed by the Chinese themselves in the proceeds of the crop into a marketable article cultivation of ramie they reserve some of the : have been wanting ; hence failure and disas- best stems for seeding purposes. Notwith- ter. standing the widespread opinion to the con- For many years there existed a strong trary, it appears that planting from seed is opinion especially in France that the most the right method, and that every effort should practical way to treat ramie stems was to dry be made to follow it. In the few cases where them, and afterwards to decorticate them. The good seed is not procurable, but only cuttings, idea was good so far as it went, because, as in it will undoubtedly be the ease of flax and hemp, there are many ad- advantageous to reserve some of the best plants thus raised exclusively vantages to be gained by cutting the crop, for seeding. When propagating from seed, a letting it dry, storing it, and extracting the small crop of fibre may be available for sale fibre later on, when the labour of the farm is the first year, the planting will be more sys- not otherwise occupied. It allows also of the tematic, and the growth of the stems more possibility of sending the dried stems in quan- uniform, a great desideratum in view of ob- tities to central works to be treated on a large taining fibre of one standard and one quality. and economical scale. In tropical countries the The work of uprooting the stock plants grown drying process was a failure, because the stems from cuttings is a laborious one, which is dis- fermented instead of drying in the humid pensed with in the case of propagation by seed. climate, and artificial drying was too expensive Plantations raised from seed are longer lived to be adopted. This opinion undoubtedly re- than those raised from cuttings. The Ram Ragh tarded seriously the manufacture of ramie for estate, planted in 1878, is still giving crop, many years, because it was based on two notwithstanding the abandonment of cultiva- serious mistakes that have needed years to tion consequent on the death of its owner in expose and overcome. Each stem of ramie is i6 RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE* surrounded with a skin or pellicle. This skin, growing of ramie on his own estate which en- if allowed to dry on the stem, assumes a [ abled him to practically test his ideas by brown colour, clings to the fibre with remark- actual experiments on the raw material a able tenacity, and has been the cause of the I combination of advantages probably not en- major portion of the degumming patents that j joyed by any other inventor of decorticators. have been taken out. The chemists only par- j Patiently and scientifically he has, step by tially succeeded in their treatment, because in step, worked out the problem, and the machine removing the brown skin they too often represents the result of his several years' attacked the strength of the fibre, destroyed labour. It is simple, inexpensive, and does its its lustre, made it harsh and brittle, affected work admirably. It is fed by the insertion of its character for receiving dyes, and matted lots of about ten stems. The stems are used it,causing great loss in combing. in the same condition as cut, with the leaves The problem, commercially considered, has on. The operation of feeding is as follows: been to obtain a decorticating machine which The stems are passed in twice. They enter the can carry out economically the following pro- machine butt ends first, and having been trea- cesses without damaging the fibre (a) Re- : ted about six inches of their length, they are move all the woody parts from the green withdrawn (an operation easily carried out) and (6) remove the outer skin or cuticle stems ; fed in a second time, the leaf ends first, so as which has so long baffled all mechanical efforts to complete the operation. It frees the stems to remove it ; and (c) extract as much as pos- from all woody matter and from the outer skin sible of the juice of the stems so as to sim- or cuticle, and extracts a large portion of the plify and cheapen the degumming process. The juice, thus producing fibre retaining all its two former processes are effectively carried out valuable qualities. by hand-labour in China, where women and The machine, which weighs 11 cwt., is very children scrape every stem and remove the skin strong and not liable to get out of order. It and the wood, but leave most of the juice in consists mainly of the framework and driving the fibre. gear, the decorticating drum carrying beaters All inventors of ramie decorticators have con- and the feed bed. This latter is the import- centrated their efforts on machines to produce ant feature of the machine, by reason of its ribbons. Needless to say, the object aimed at special contour, which varies at different parts fell far short of the real necessities of the to suit the various descriptions of work which case hence some of the long delays ; and the machine has to perform. The first part of numerous disappointments with which this fibre the bed is curved outwards, the second is is associated. Ramie ribbons or strips must straight, and the third is curved inwards. The always be considered unsatisfactory, and will, ramie stems are fed into the machine over the no doubt, in time .disappear. The buyer has first part of the bed, where the woody portion no means of readily testing their value, the becomes immediately broken and partly re- quality and percentage of the fibre, and moved the strip passes on to the second part, ; whether it has been damaged or not by the and as the speed of the beaters is considerably decorticating machine hence his objection to ; greater than that at which the stems are fed an unknown article, in addition to which they into the machine, a scraping effect is produced cannot be highly compressed and packed into on the strips, seeing that the distance between proper bales as other fibres are, because the the beaters and the surface of the bed is less large quantity of pieces of wood in them cut than the thickness of the strip. This scraping the fibre. They also contain a very large per- action effects a double purpose it attacks the : centage of useless material on which freight outer skin and also all matters extraneous to the has to be paid. fibre. The strips or stricks of filaments then It has been reserved for a Frenchman, M. pass down vertically into the machine, and the Faure, to construct a machine capable of pro- | separated matters namely, most of the woody ducing, not ribbons, but fibre in one operation, j parts, the skin, and gummy substances are free from woody matter and skin, and with ; thrown out to a distance by the centrifugal the least possible amount of juice in it. The ; force of the beator drum. When the stems product is equivalent to China grass. A skilled \ liav<> entered to within a short distance of engineer and machine maker, with every their end, the return movement is effected and j facility at his own works and ample means for | they are withdrawn. During the withdrawal carrying out his ideas, he had the benefit j the following action takes place: At the in- of another important advantage namely, the ward curve, or third part of the bed, the fila- j RAMIE RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE t FIBRE. ments are slightly and gradually grazed by With regard to the production, practical ex- the beater blades, which throw out the perience shows that one machine, worked by coarser of the debris still adhering. The opera- two men, can treat 360 Ib. of fresh green stems tion isperformed with great delicacy the ; per hour, or about 32 cwt. per day of ten fibres assume the position of the chord of the hours. The amount of dry fibre produced de- curve, and are constantly agitated by the pends largely on the nature of the stems ; beaters. When the fibres arrive at the second the percentage of fibre contained in green part of the bed, as the space between it and stems varies very much according to circum- the beaters is reduced, the entire infinitely stances. On a 5 per cent, basis the net pro- removal of matters adhering to the fibres still duction of dry fibre of each machine per day is effected, and these latter leave the machine of ten hours is 180 Ib. When the stems are white, parallel, and free from woody matter, specially good, 200 Ib. of dry fibre have been from skin, and from the major portion of the produced per machine in ten hours. Under juice. The concave bed or breast is mounted ordinary circumstances, a production varying in such a way that its position to the action from 160 to 200 Ib. of dry fibre in ten hours of the beaters is easily regulated. The per machine may be expected. Each machine brackets which carry the bed are supported by requires about 1 indicated horse-power to drive spiral spring cushions and flexible legs, the it. When a number of machines are working object being to obtain a rubbing action between together less power will suffice ; thus, 8 horse- the beaters and the fibre, having for its special power will drive ten machines. The machines object the loosening and removal of the skin produce a fibre which ranks in the market or outer cuticle. The elastic bed gives way or with China grass, by reason of its regularity vibrates an enormous number of times per in condition and quality. The buyer can easily minute, and this produces the described rub- see and test what he is buying. He is there- " " bing or knuckle-joint action between the fore able to give it its proper classification and beaters and the fibres on the bed. The shape pay its full market value in addition to ; of the feed bed causes it to remain clean and which, by reason of the bales being well pressed free from extraneous matter through the action and containing little else than ramie fibre, the of the beaters. Choking is thus rendered im- freight and expenses per ton are reduced to a possible. abnormal strains are avoided, All minimum. and the machine can be kept at work from Green stems grown in a tropical or sub- morning till night without stoppages for the best results. The tropical climate give cleaning. The refuse falls underneath the growth being quick, the stems carry plenty of machine, and is removed from time to time. fresh green juice, which assists the decortica- In the case of a number of machines working tion very much by leaving the fibre freely and together, an endless band or conveyor, passing carrying with it in its downward course from under the machines, removes the refuse con- the beating point of the machine large quan- tinually, and so keeps the neighbourhood of tities of extraneous matter. The condition of the machines perfectly free from it. the stems at the time of treatment also plays The machine is capable of being easily an important part. In order to ensure the best worked by native labour in the ramie planta- possible fibre, the stems should be treated tions, or in works connected therewith. within a few hours of being cut. They should Although simple, it needs to be constructed not be over-ripe, as the fibre deteriorates after with the greatest accuracy in order to ensure the stems have arrived at maturity. The best effective working. The cylinder, carrying the plan is to cut them either just at full maturity steel beaters, is perfectly balanced and accu- or slightly before. The fibre thus obtained ex- rate in its action it runs at 250 revolutions ; cels in whiteness and ductility, retains its full per minute the surface of the beaters is per- ; lustre, and shows to the best advantage during fectly parallel with the setting of the feed-bed, subsequent manufacturing operations, such as and capable of working close up to it, say preparing, combing, spinning, dyeing, etc. within a distance equal to the thickness of a The machine has worked during all the sea- piece of writing paper. The feed bed, the sons since 1894 in the presence of experts and varying profile of which is of such enormous fibre growers. In each season it has treated importance in the efficacy of the machine, is two crops, and the fibre obtained has proved, made with the greatest of accuracy by special after degumming and combing, to be equal to machinery. the best China grass. It is claimed for this i8 RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR NETTLE FIBRE* machine that it has solved the question which at good and profitable prices, he will doubtless has heretofore been one of the chief difficulties increase his production methodically and ener- in connection with ramie. getically. The progress will be steady, and in the proportion in which the increased supplies The grower can now produce ramie fibre of the fibre come into the market will be the, from his stems in such a condition that it needs enlargement of existing mills, the starting of only drying, packing, and sending to mar- new mills, and the increased use of the fibre ket in order to turn it into money, and as the manner of goods for which it is adapted. in all margin of profit is large, there can be no doubt The trade is now on a sound and practical that the cultivation of ramie will henceforth basis as far as immediate requirements are increase each season. The position of the concerned. The supplies of China grass, though manufacturer is entirely changed. His raw at times irregular in quantity and quality, and material will come into the market in regular considerable subject to fluctuations in price, quantities in a condition in which he can easily have enabled spinners to attain their present utilise it, so as to enable him to be sure of position in the market and to show to the an ample supply. The cost of extracting the manufacturing world what can be accomplished fibre from the green stems, drying, and pack- with the fibre. There can be no doubt that ing it into bales, amounts to about 3s. 9d. per the present situation warrants and justifies the ton of stems treated, or 3 15s. per ton of dry encouragement and immediate development of fibre obtained when working with ten ramie cultivation in all the countries the cli- machines and native labour at Is. per day mate and soil of which are favourable to the including motive power, stores, etc. If the growth of the plant. This will ensure regular, labour calculated at 2s. per day, the cost will is ample, and cheap supplies of the fibre from a be 5s. l^d. per ton of green stems, or 5 2s. variety of sources, and free the spinner from Gd. per ton of dry fibre obtained, assuming dependence upon one channel of supply that the stems give 5 per cent, of fibre. The only namely, China. Visionary schemes have cost of extraction is, of course, liable to be been swept away by hard experience our ; much affected by the price of labour, the cost knowledge of the splendid qualities of this fibre of motive power, and by various local circum- and the mode of treating it has grown enor- stances. we may, therefore, look forward to mously, and The way is now and open for great clear its manufacture being rapidly increased and progress in this industry, but it must not be freed from speculation and costly experiments. too readily assumed that there is going to be an In a recent letter received from a large spin- v immediate boom in ramie the very nature of ; ner of ramie, I was much struck with an ex- the circumstances attending its cultivation pre- pression he used in relation to this fibre " " vent such an occurrence. Everything points namely, that it is the noblest of all fibres. to a certain but gradual development. I do I thoroughly agree with him. It is a true de- not anticipate that the cultivator will proceed scription, and I have endeavoured to show that otherwise than cautiously in planting and pro- it is indeed superior in so many respects as to ducing fibre. As soon as he has thorouhgly justify its being placed at the head of all tex- realised that there is a ready sale for his fibre tile fibres. RAMIE, RHEA, CHINA GRASS, OR 19 APPENDIX B. " The following is an extract from an article in the British Trade Journal of May 1st, 1898 : IMPORTANT PROGRESS WITH RAMIE FIBRE : IT view of completing arrangements to enter ENTERS A PRACTICAL PHASE. largely into the cultivation of ramie and of In a paper read by Mr. Thos. Barraclough at purchasing a considerable number of Faure the Imperial Institute, London, W., under the machines. The crop of ramie stems at Limoges was cut, auspices of the Society of Arts, on the culti- vation and manufacture of the above fibre, the fibre extracted by the Faure machines in which is printed in the "Journal" of ihe the presence of all the gentlemen who had Society of Arts for April 2nd, 1897, he laid accepted the invitation, and on July 27th, stress on the fact that one of the principal 1897, an important conference and discussion reasons why this fibre has not yet taken its was held at Limoges, in which every one of the visitors took part. The discussion referred proper place in the textile market is, that in its various stages, beginning with the cultiva- mainly to three points (1) Are the visitors : tion of the fibre and ending with its manufac- "^satisfied with the construction and working of ture into textile goods,' there has been an the Faure machines? (2) Is the fibre produced entire absence of sympathy and co-operation by the machines equal to ramie fibre decortica- between the various parties whose interests are ted by hand, as in China, and known in the involved the grower, the merchant, the spin- trade as China grass? (3) Is the mechanical decortication of ramie a success? ner, the manufacturer, and others. When the 1897 crop of ramie grown on M. After full discussion of the various points, a Faure's estate in France (first cutting) was resolution in French was proposed, of which almost ready for decortication, Mr. Barra- the following is a literal translation, unani- " clough invited a number of gentlemen inter- mously adopted and signed Limoges, July : ested in the cultivation of ramie to meet to- 27th, 1897. The undersigned, present at the trials made by M. Faure with his new machine gether at Limoges in order to personally in- spect the Faure decorticating machines at work for decorticating ramie, are pleased to declare extracting the fibre from the green stems, and that the results obtained have completely satis- These fied them. Their opinion is that the decortica- 1 to carefully test the fibre produced. tion of ramie by the Faure machine is quite gentlemen represented firms and planters of equal to that done by hand. ' ramie in the Straits Settlements, South India, They express Southern Russia, and other countries. With their opinion that the problem of mechanical the view of securing the personal sympathy and decortication is now solved under conditions the active co-operation of ramie spinners and absolutely satisfactory." manufacturers with ramie growers, and of This testimonial, emanating as it did from bringing about an interchange of ideas so as men practical in the cultivation, preparation, to ensure a community of interests, Mr. Barra- ! and spinning of the fibre, cannot fail to be re- clough also specially invited some ramie spin- garded as a distinct step forward in the direc- ners to be present during the trials, to test tion of success for ramie. China grass, being the Faure machine and the fibre it produces, ramie prepared by female labour in China at so as to assure themselves that the fibre is a mere nominal cost, is virtually the only ramie thoroughly well adapted for their manufactur- fibre that is at present on the market [1897] ing requirements. The invitations were cordi- 1 and the few important spinners of the fibre in ally accepted, and the presence of the invited France and Germany have been practically guests at Limoges during the tests was a signal limited to China grass as their raw material. proof of the importance they attached to a full The supply of this fibre is variable, and the consideration by both the growers and manu- price is generally considered mu*ch too high facturers of ramie of the many questions in- for an extensive use from the manufacturer's volved in its production and utilisation. One point of view. The result of the conference of the gentlemen present, who had personally has a very important bearing on the trade, worked the Faure decorticating machine in because it asserts that ramie decorticated by Sumatra, was pleased to inform the other Faure's machines. is equal to China grass, and visitors that the Faure machine had been tes- it necessarily follows that the supply of the ted on a plantation in Sumatra, owned by a fibre will be virtually unlimited, seeing that company of which he is managing director, and any quantity of decorticating machines can the results obtained were thoroughly satisfac- -be set to work, tory; that he was then in Europe with the THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. 181934 LD JAJi FEB 36 1938 SEP fiuf LD 21-100m-7,'33 YD 15367 Vv I UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY