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The most biologically-inspired artificial neurons are those of the third generation, and are termed spiking neurons, as individual pulses or spikes are the means by which stimuli are communicated. In essence, a spike is a short-term change in electrical potential and is the basis of communication between biological neurons. Unlike previous generations of artificial neurons, spiking neurons operate in the temporal domain, and exploit time as a resource in their computation. In 1952, Alan Lloyd Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley produced the first model of a spiking neuron; their model describes the complex electro-chemical process that enables spikes to propagate through, and hence be communicated by, spiking neurons. Since this time, improvements in experimental procedures in neurobiology, particularly with in vivo experiments, have provided an increasingly more complex understanding of biological neurons. For example, it is now well understood that the propagation of spikes between neurons requires neurotransmitter, which is typically of limited supply. When the supply is exhausted neurons become unresponsive. The morphology of neurons, number of receptor sites, amongst many other factors, means that neurons consume the supply of neurotransmitter at different rates. This in turn produces variations over time in the responsiveness of neurons, yielding various computational capabilities. Such improvements in the understanding of the biological neuron have culminated in a wide range of different neuron models, ranging from the computationally efficient to the biologically realistic. These models enable the modelling of neural circuits found in the brain. In recent years, much of the focus in neuron modelling has moved to the study of the connectivity of spiking neural networks. Spiking neural networks provide a vehicle to understand from a computational perspective, aspects of the brain's neural circuitry. This understanding can then be used to tackle some of the historically intractable issues with artificial neurons, such as scalability and lack of variable binding. Current knowledge of feed-forward, lateral, and recurrent connectivity of spiking neurons, and the interplay between excitatory and inhibitory neurons is beginning to shed light on these issues, by improved understanding of the temporal processing capabilities and synchronous behaviour of biological neurons. This research topic aims to amalgamate current research aimed at tackling these phenomena.
Due to the increasing demand for security and reliability in manufacturing and mechatronic systems, early detection and diagnosis of faults are key points to reduce economic losses caused by unscheduled maintenance and downtimes, to increase safety, to prevent the endangerment of human beings involved in the process operations and to improve reliability and availability of autonomous systems. The development of algorithms for health monitoring and fault and anomaly detection, capable of the early detection, isolation, or even prediction of technical component malfunctioning, is becoming more and more crucial in this context. This Special Issue is devoted to new research efforts and results concerning recent advances and challenges in the application of “Algorithms for Fault Detection and Diagnosis”, articulated over a wide range of sectors. The aim is to provide a collection of some of the current state-of-the-art algorithms within this context, together with new advanced theoretical solutions.
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The legacy of the Second World War remains unsettled; no consensus has been achieved about its meaning and its lasting impact. This is pre-eminently the case in France, where the experience of defeat and occupation created the grounds for a deeply ambiguous mixture of resistance and collaboration, pride and humiliation, heroism and abjection, which writers and politicians have been trying to disentangle ever since. This book develops a theoretical approach which draws on trauma studies and hermeneutics; and it then focuses on some of the intellectuals who lived through the war and on how their experience and troubled memories of it continue to echo through their later writing, even and especially when it is not the explicit topic. This was an astonishing generation of writers who would go on to play a pivotal role on a global scale in post-war aesthetic and philosophical endeavours. The book proposes close readings of works by some of the most brilliant amongst them: Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Albert Camus, Charlotte Delbo, Paul Ricoeur, Emmanuel Levinas, Louis Althusser, Jorge Semprun, Elie Wiesel, and Sarah Kofman.
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Forskningsetisk skjønn angår alle forskere. Denne boka diskuterer en rekke viktige problemstillinger om hvordan skjønn bør utøves.Forskningsetisk skjønn angår alle forskere og mange som på andre måter er involvert i forskning. Forskeren bruker skjønn i valg av forskningsspørsmål, metode, fremferd overfor dem det forskes på, sikring av informasjon og formidling av forskningsresultater. Forskningsetiske komiteer og forskningsforvaltning har et spesielt ansvar for både selv å utøve og å tilrettelegge for utøvelse av godt forskningsetisk skjønn.Bidragene i denne boka tematiserer ulike etiske problemstillinger som oppstår i forskning og i forholdet mellom forskning, forskningsvurdering og samfunn. Hva kan og bør tillegges skjønn? Hva kreves av godt skjønn? Og hvordan kan man unngå vilkårlighet i skjønnsutøvelsen? God forskningsetisk skjønnsutøvelse støttes av refleksjon rundt hva skjønnsutøvelsen består i, og hva som skal til for å hjelpe den frem. Boka har som ambisjon å bidra til slik refleksjon.Bidragsytere er Anette Brunovskis, Kristine Bærøe, Jakob Elster, Kjersti Fjørtoft, Hallvard J. Fossheim, Helene Ingierd, Deborah H. Oughton, Knut W. Ruyter og Torkild Vinther.
In A monument to the country. Official statistics in Belgium, 1795-1870, Nele Bracke unravels why and how the Belgian state and its predecessors organized and developed an official statistical apparatus in order to collect numerical information. The study captures the underlying objectives and structures, as well as the methods to compile statistics. Nele Bracke investigates the meaning and significance of government statistics in the 19th-century State and society. In Belgium, early social scientists established an internationally renowned ‘statistical system’ designed to collect information about the country, the people and the society. This ‘statistical system’ was built around the ‘Commission centrale de Statistique’ (statistical committee) and the production of demographic, economic and agricultural censuses. In the first part of the book, the author analyzes the institutional history of the ‘Commission centrale de Statistique’ and its predecessors. In the second part of the book, she studies the censuses.
The goal of this volume is to examine and describe the manifold improvisational culture around 1800. Therefore, different viewpoints are brought together, the focus lies, besides traditional source analysis, on methods and approaches of historical performance practice und historically informed music theory. What were the different esthetical viewpoints on pianistic improvisation? What were the standard models and conventional designs of improvised piano music of that time? How was improvisation taught? How can the conflict between generic approaches and the ideal of unmistakable individuality of the performer be described? Therefore, a variety of sources is examined by the contributors to this volume: italian partimenti, composed music that is guided by improvisational thinking (like Fantasia and Capriccio) textbooks, teaching documents, concert reports etc.. Besides the outstanding significance of Beethoven as improviser (already noted and admired by his contemporaries), this anthology tries to give a fuller picture by sheding light on then well-known figures like Ciacomo Tritto, Carl Czerny, Joseph Preindl, Joseph Lipavsky, Justin Heinrich Knecht and others.
Payroll is not easy to manage, especially when it comes to determining the number of hours worked by the employees. Have you ever asked yourself whether you are getting it right when it comes to dealing with hourly employees or even when calculating overtime? It is important to know how to calculate payroll hours properly. In this guide, you’ll learn the steps to ensure you get it right every time. Whether it is tracking normal working hours or overtime and even breaks, you are sorted.
This open access book contains the oral histories that were inspired by the work of the Special Olympics in conjunction with the 50th anniversary of its founding. The foreword and prefatory materials provide an overview of the Special Olympics and its growth in the People’s Republic of China. The sections that follow record interview transcripts of individuals with intellectual disabilities living in Shanghai. In addition to chronicling the involvement of these individuals and their families in the Special Olympics movement, the interview transcripts also capture their daily lives and how they have navigated school and work.
This book proposes a series of studies devoted to one of the most important areas of political and institutional history, that of the relations between the political dimension and the exercise of justice. Centred on the experience of Florence, but open to comparison with that of other parts of Italy, the investigation brings to light how, in the transformation of the political framework of the age of the Comune to that of the territorial State between the thirteenth and the fifteenth centuries, in the relations between the powers active in the territory the sphere of justice offered scope for debate and political competition as well as leverage for legitimisation. One of the intentions of the book is, in fact, to contribute to revising the concept of justice, going beyond the traditional vision of public function and an aspect of the progressive affirmation of the State.Il volume ripropone una serie di ricerche dedicate a un ambito tra i più rilevanti negli studi di storia politica e istituzionale, quello dei rapporti tra dimensione politica ed esercizio della giustizia. Centrata sull'esperienza di Firenze ma aperta alla comparazione con altre esperienze italiane, l'indagine evidenzia come, nella trasformazione del quadro politico dall'età comunale a quella dello Stato territoriale tra XIII e XV secolo, i rapporti di forza tra i poteri attivi sul territorio trovarono nella giustizia un terreno di confronto, una risorsa per la competizione politica, uno strumento di legittimazione. Tra gli intenti del volume è infatti quello di contribuire al rinnovamento della nozione di giustizia, superandone la visione tradizionale in termini di funzione pubblica e di aspetto della progressiva affermazione dello Stato.
University Assignment
The Yearbook aims to promote research, studies and writings in the field of international law in Asia, as well as to provide an intellectual platform for the discussion and dissemination of Asian views and practices on contemporary international legal issues. Readership: All interested in International Law and Asian Law.