ENGINEERING SYSTEMS INTEGRATION Theory, Metrics, and Methods ENGINEERING SYSTEMS INTEGRATION Theory, Metrics, and Methods Gary O. Langford Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business ENGINEERING SYSTEMS INTEGRATION Theory, Metrics, and Methods Gary O. Langford Boca Raton London New York CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business The Open Access version of this book, available at www.taylorfrancis.com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license. Cover: This exquisite view from space of the Aurora Australis (the southern lights) was taken by NASA’s Earth Observatory on 11 September 2005. A giant solar flare erupted, sending charged protons and electrons 1.495 mil- lion kilometers across space penetrating the Earth’s atmosphere. The artificially colored green ring glows in the ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. From the ground in Australia, the Aurora Australis is seen as a velvety Chimayo-inspired shimmer that warms your intellect. Photo credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works ISBN -13 : 978-1-4398-5288-0 ( h bk) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. 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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Langford, Gary O. Engineering systems integration : theory, metrics, and methods / Gary O. Langford. p. cm. “A CRC title.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4398-5288-0 (alk. paper) 1. Systems engineering. 2. Systems integration. 3. System analysis. 4. Product life cycle. I. Title. TA168.L315 2012 620’.0042--dc23 2011043570 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com Cover: This exquisite view from space of the Aurora Australis (the southern lights) was taken by NASA’s Earth Observatory on 11 September 2005. A giant solar flare erupted, sending charged protons and electrons 1.495 mil- lion kilometers across space penetrating the Earth’s atmosphere. The artificially colored green ring glows in the ultraviolet portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. From the ground in Australia, the Aurora Australis is seen as a velvety Chimayo-inspired shimmer that warms your intellect. Photo credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works ISBN -13 : 978-1-4398-5288-0 ( h bk) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, includ- ing photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Langford, Gary O. Engineering systems integration : theory, metrics, and methods / Gary O. Langford. p. cm. “A CRC title.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4398-5288-0 (alk. paper) 1. Systems engineering. 2. Systems integration. 3. System analysis. 4. Product life cycle. I. Title. TA168.L315 2012 620’.0042--dc23 2011043570 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com I dedicate this book to Teresa, Terry Todd, and Whitney. vii Contents Disclaimer ............................................................................................................ xiii Foreword ................................................................................................................xv Preface .................................................................................................................. xvii Author ................................................................................................................... xix 1 Importance of Integration .............................................................................1 Introduction ......................................................................................................1 Case Study Introduction .................................................................................3 Hubble Space Telescope Systems Engineering Case Study .......................5 Introduction .................................................................................................5 Hubble Space Telescope Description........................................................6 Integration Issues ........................................................................................7 Integration Problems ..................................................................................7 Integration Management............................................................................8 Principles ...........................................................................................................9 Principles of Integration................................................................................ 10 Principle 1: The Principle of Alignment ................................................ 11 Principle 2: The Principle of Partitioning .............................................. 13 Principle 3: The Principle of Induction .................................................. 14 Principle 4: The Principle of Limitation ................................................. 15 Principle 5: The Principle of Forethought .............................................. 19 Principle 6: The Principle of Planning ................................................... 21 Principle 7: The Principle of Loss ............................................................ 23 Endnote ........................................................................................................... 24 References ....................................................................................................... 25 2 Essences of Interaction ................................................................................ 29 Without Boundaries: Oneness ..................................................................... 29 Boundaries ......................................................................................................30 Scope ................................................................................................................ 40 Boundary Conditions ....................................................................................42 Boundary Extenders ......................................................................................43 Objects and Boundaries ................................................................................44 Objects and Mechanism................................................................................ 47 Introduction to Interaction ........................................................................... 48 Energy, Material Wealth, Matter, and Information................................... 49 Energy ......................................................................................................... 50 Matter.......................................................................................................... 51 Material Wealth ......................................................................................... 51 Information ................................................................................................ 52 viii Contents Property, Trait, and Attribute ....................................................................... 53 Property ...................................................................................................... 53 Trait .............................................................................................................54 Attribute ..................................................................................................... 55 Summary of Property, Trait, and Attribute ........................................... 56 Epistemology of Systems Engineering Integration................................... 57 Metrics ............................................................................................................. 57 General Nature of Objects ............................................................................ 60 Services and Products ................................................................................... 62 Objects .............................................................................................................63 Object Types ...............................................................................................65 Constraint ....................................................................................................... 70 Frameworks .................................................................................................... 70 Process Frame ............................................................................................ 72 Object Frame .............................................................................................. 73 Key Variables ............................................................................................. 73 Essence of a Framework ........................................................................... 74 Causality ......................................................................................................... 75 Causality, Mechanisms, and Correlation ................................................... 79 Model for Objective Causalities ...................................................................80 Objective Causalities Framework ................................................................ 81 Objective Frame.........................................................................................84 Subjective Frame .......................................................................................85 Summary of Objective Causalities .........................................................85 Cognitive Domain ......................................................................................... 89 Procedural Domain ....................................................................................... 91 Model and Representation Domain ............................................................ 92 Function........................................................................................................... 93 Quality ............................................................................................................. 98 References ....................................................................................................... 99 3 Foundations in Systems Integration ....................................................... 103 Introduction .................................................................................................. 103 General Systems Thinking .................................................................... 105 Determining Systemness ....................................................................... 108 Stability ..................................................................................................... 108 Metastability ............................................................................................ 111 Instability ................................................................................................. 112 Integration Perspective........................................................................... 112 Essence of Integration ................................................................................. 115 Purpose of Systems Integration ................................................................. 118 Automation .............................................................................................. 118 Technology ............................................................................................... 118 Improvements .......................................................................................... 119 ix Contents Tasks of Systems Integration ...................................................................... 120 Defining Terms............................................................................................. 123 General Ontology and Mereology of Integration.................................... 124 Nature of Physical Objects ..................................................................... 125 Characterizing Objects for Integration ................................................ 126 Nature of Intellectual Objects ............................................................... 127 Objective Measures of Performance ..................................................... 128 Value and Use: Objects ........................................................................... 129 Performance-Based Value ........................................................................... 130 Subjective Value: Processes ........................................................................ 133 Management Processes .......................................................................... 138 Processes as Intellectual Property ........................................................ 138 Subjective and Objective Ontology ........................................................... 139 Business Models ........................................................................................... 141 Risk and Loss................................................................................................ 143 Prototype-Based Ontology, Logic, and Mereology ................................. 144 Objects as Models ........................................................................................ 146 Objects as Black Boxes ............................................................................ 146 Objects as Related to Functions ............................................................ 147 Summary Overview of Objects............................................................. 148 Integration Framework ............................................................................... 149 Integration as Mechanism .......................................................................... 151 Emergence ..................................................................................................... 153 Dynamics of Integration ............................................................................. 153 Integrative Mechanisms ......................................................................... 156 Exploring Integration Concepts ............................................................ 157 Abstraction Classification of Integration ............................................. 160 Social Classification of Integration ....................................................... 161 Model Classification of Integration ...................................................... 162 Consolidation of Thoughts on Integration ............................................... 164 Strategy of Integration................................................................................. 167 Power ............................................................................................................. 169 Model-Based Systems Integration ........................................................ 171 Most Effective Strategy for Integration ................................................ 172 Axioms of Integration ................................................................................. 174 Endnotes........................................................................................................ 180 References ..................................................................................................... 180 4 Systems ......................................................................................................... 189 Systemness .................................................................................................... 192 Emergence ..................................................................................................... 193 Interface ......................................................................................................... 195 Functional Analysis ..................................................................................... 197 Systems and Integration ............................................................................. 198 System of Systems and Integration ........................................................... 203 x Contents Organizational Models ............................................................................... 206 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 212 References ..................................................................................................... 212 5 Integration in Systems Engineering Context ........................................ 215 Introduction to Systems Engineering ....................................................... 215 Nature of Systems Engineering ................................................................. 218 Issues with Systems Engineering .............................................................. 220 Limits of Systems Engineering .................................................................. 224 Ask “Why?” .............................................................................................225 Principle of Constraints.......................................................................... 226 Clarion Call for Changes in Systems Engineering ............................ 226 Holism ...................................................................................................... 227 Synthesis ................................................................................................... 228 Work of the Systems Engineer .............................................................. 229 Systems and Engineering ........................................................................... 231 Charter of Systems Engineering ................................................................ 232 Lifecycle Considerations ............................................................................. 233 Lifecycle Success ..................................................................................... 235 Lifecycle Stages........................................................................................ 236 Lifecycle Measures.................................................................................. 240 Lifecycle Measure: Time.................................................................... 244 Lifecycle Measure: Cost ..................................................................... 244 Lifecycle Metrics ..................................................................................... 245 Lifecycle Metric: Money .................................................................... 245 Lifecycle Metric: Performance .......................................................... 246 Lifecycle Metric: Complexity ............................................................ 246 Lifecycle Sense......................................................................................... 246 Introduction to Defining the Problem ...................................................... 247 Defining the Problem .................................................................................. 248 Nested Problems ..................................................................................... 248 Hierarchical Problems ............................................................................ 249 Like-Kind Problems ................................................................................ 250 Problem Domain Analysis ......................................................................... 251 Characteristics of a Problem .................................................................. 252 Scope of a Problem .................................................................................. 253 Nature of a Problem................................................................................ 253 Domain of a Problem .............................................................................. 255 Systems Engineer’s Perspective of a Problem ..................................... 255 Stakeholder’s Perspective of a Problem ............................................... 256 Verification and a Problem .................................................................... 258 Integration and a Problem ..................................................................... 258 Characterizing the Need............................................................................. 259 Stakeholders.................................................................................................. 259 xi Contents Stakeholder Analysis ................................................................................... 260 Classification of Potential Stakeholders ............................................... 262 Complexity .................................................................................................... 265 Process Models ............................................................................................. 266 Scalable Process Models ......................................................................... 267 Checklist for Scalability ......................................................................... 268 Testing ........................................................................................................... 269 System Design .............................................................................................. 271 Architecting .................................................................................................. 274 Validation ...................................................................................................... 278 References ..................................................................................................... 279 6 Systems Integration Management .......................................................... 283 Granularity ...................................................................................................284 Granularity and Integration ....................................................................... 287 Abstraction.................................................................................................... 288 Project Management .................................................................................... 290 Integration as a Recursive Process ............................................................ 292 Measures of Integration .............................................................................. 292 Quality ........................................................................................................... 293 Types of Quality Loss Functions .......................................................... 298 Outline of the General Quality Loss Function ................................... 299 Integration Strategy .....................................................................................300 Recursive Nature of Systems Integration ................................................. 301 Integration Planning Concepts .................................................................. 303 Events.............................................................................................................306 Integration Planning and Scheduling Steps .......................................308 Integration Plan ............................................................................................309 Systems Integration Model ......................................................................... 310 Patterns in Systems Engineering and Patterns in Systems Integration ................................................................................. 314 Three Tests for Iterative Thinking versus Recursive Thinking ....... 318 References ..................................................................................................... 321 Appendix 1: “To Manage” Decomposition ................................................... 325 Appendix 2: Product Upgrades Based on Minimum Expected Quality Loss ............................................................... 335 Glossary of Terms .............................................................................................. 353 Index ..................................................................................................................... 375 xiii Disclaimer Any views, opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed or implied in this book are those of the author and do not reflect or represent the official policy or position of the United States Government, the United States Department of Defense, the United States Navy, the Naval Postgraduate School, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and nor do they reflect or represent the official policy or position of the University of South Australia, its School of Electrical and Information Engineering, or its Defence and Systems Institute. Correspondence concerning this book should be addressed to Taylor & Francis Group LLC/CRC Press, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway Northwest, Suite 300, Boca Raton, Florida 33487. xv Foreword Systems engineering is the glue that holds together complex creations and enables them to perform beneficial functions. The current demand for sys- tems engineers outpaces all but a very few other fields, and Gary Langford is eminently qualified to inform those who seek to work or want to work effectively in this crucial endeavor. Engineering Systems Integration: Theory, Metrics, and Methods fills a glaring gap faced when we consider and then carry out systems integration. This book offers a sound approach to planning for systems integration. It treats integration as a fundamental approach based on common-sense rationale. The activities of integration are discussed in a clear and straightforward manner. Gary Langford brings his practical experience in integrating large and small systems to a wide audience in different fields and disciplines. He has woven considerable technical skills honed in industry with the right blend of academics to deliver a much needed and most readable textbook. There is a great need for this book. Norm Augustine Chairman and Chief Executive Officer (Retired) Lockheed Martin Corporation xvii Preface Our past and our plight are in the hands of dreamers and pragmatists. Dreamers rule the gateways to our future, concerned with a world that could be. Pragmatists build our next reality, driven by the success or failure of their previous work. If they solve the wrong problem, or if in the wrong way they solve the right problem, neither is a credit to mankind. Their solutions may be clever, apt, and ingenious—exemplars of accomplishment—but they may have failed a crucial test: failure to appreciate systems integration. The les- sons are stern. Systems integration, misunderstood and ineptly executed, wreaks havoc with other systems. We live with those other systems. This book concerns the principles and practices of integrating parts to form a system. This book is not a rehash of integration platitudes or without mettle. The aim is to discuss the fundamental nature of integration, expose the subtle premises to achieve integration, posit a substantial theory frame- work that is both simple and clear, and elaborate on the discussion of inte- grating in ways in which you may not be accustomed. The practices of integration are substantially more than a narrative of fiddle-faddle banter casually dispensed during planning sessions or abused when directing other people’s work. Managers share the greater responsibility to not just say, “just go integrate it.” The practicalities of integrating parts when we build or analyze systems mandate an analysis and evaluation of existing integrative frameworks of causality and knowledge. Integrating is not just a word that describes a best practice, an art, or a single discipline. The act of integrating is an approach, operative in all disciplines, in all we see, in all we do. Integration is not found everywhere, but when it exists, we find systems. Philosophy and reason, curiosity and questioning, and mystery and con- templation are not enough to disentangle the concepts of integration. Nor will they ever be enough. An idea begins with a single notion—a notion that something is either right or wrong. That notion might be an extension to an established natural or social “law,” a nuance imposed on theory or knowl- edge structures of our thinking, or just a plain intuition, however inspired. No discernable method need be followed. Whether right or wrong, the notion persists, perhaps long after a spell of acquiescence or self-doubt. Yet the notion yearns for completeness. The unrequited notion has no self-determination, no humbleness; it just eats at you. Right requires justification, wrong requires conviction. If you stay on the path of right, the guideposts are many, and you never stray. But there is no one path for wrong, no lit way, no signposts, no guide. To be wrong, you must glean from whatever right you allow as your encumbrances. The greater the right, the greater the burden you carry, and the less you can stray. The burden you carry is all that has come before you. xviii Preface Forever question what is right, find it where you may. Right can offer a hint at perspective, a dash of method, a snippet of theory, a glint of an idea. But the right you need is never enough to grasp, it is ever fleeting, never entombed or made comfortable. Were right to be right, there would be no problems to solve, no discord between practice and theory, no contemplation of experi- ments, no compassion for research, no “what if.” Order and resolution would prevail. As right cannot be right and never wrong, neither can right be all wrong. There must be some right in right as there is some wrong in right. Ask, “What is wrong with right?” But beware, the way of right is numbing, but the way of wrong is treacherous. The fact that you have strayed off the path of right is taken as irreverent and is offensive. You will sense ire from the gentlest soul. Persist and you may or may not discover, you may or may not be better for your journey. There may not be an end, you may never find completeness. It is the journey that pits you against yourself. I view everything as if it is flawed, whether by error in assumption, per- ception, logic, or judgment. Although the natural consequence of my think- ing might be perceived as mistrusting of all that is said and written, that contrivance is untrue. Assumptions are tested, perceptions changed, logic analyzed, and judgment is made malleable. The result is a staunch commit- ment to intense study and reflection, development of countertheories, con- juring novel ideas, exploring new approaches to solving problems, and forging new ways to pose and answer questions with context more proper and fit. I am deeply indebted to my wife Teresa whose endearing patience made this book a reality. No other person could have such tolerance and indulgence, for I am a person oft referred to as “stubborn” and “difficult.” I think I heard “and” and not an “or.” And to the few who tolerate my ideas, thank you for your labor of patience: John Osmundson, James Lake, Tim Ferris, Eduardo Kujawski. xix Author Gary O. Langford teaches systems engineering and system integration, and is a practicing systems engineer; a NASA Ames fellow; visiting lecturer in the Aeronautics and Astronautics Department, Stanford University; founder and president of four U.S. corporations (one publicly traded on Nasdaq); owner of an international consulting firm; earlier member of the boards of directors of seven corporations (holding three positions as chairman of the board); executive vice president of a merchant bank; manager of an aero- space systems engineering department; contract research scientist; foreman of a cannery nightshift operation; and lifelong learner. His work of thinking in systems integration spans his education in physics, astrophysics, geophys- ics, electrical engineering, sociology, business management, and systems engineering. He has served as the principal investigator for contracts and grants from the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Army, the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), U.S. Customs and Border Protection Agency, and the Temasek Defence Systems Institute, Singapore. In addition to extensive work with corporations and universities in the United States, he has engaged in collaborative research with researchers from Australia, Singapore, South Korea, Japan, United Kingdom, Canada, Turkey, and France. Gary Langford is a senior lecturer in the Systems Engineering Department at the United States Naval Postgraduate School and a doctoral candidate at the Defence and Systems Institute, University of South Australia, Australia. He has an AB astronomy degree from the University of California, Berkeley and an MS physics degree from California State University, Hayward. Since 1976, Gary Langford has worked in all facets of systems engineering and systems integration on projects ranging from $200 thousand to $1 billion. His research interests include the creation and sustainment of systems.