Aquaculture Law and Policy Aquaculture is a rapidly expanding industry predicted to play an increasingly important role in meeting demand for fish. The essays in this volume focus on getting a “good governance” grip on the aquaculture industry, which is facing major environmental and social challenges. The book highlights the numerous law and policy issues that may need to be addressed in the search for effective regulation of aquaculture. Those issues include, among others: the equitable assignment of property rights; the design of effective dispute resolution mechanisms; adoption of a proper taxation system for aquacul- ture; resolution of aboriginal offshore title and rights claims; recognition of inter- national trade law restrictions such as labeling limitations and food safety requirements; and determination of whether genetically modified fish should be allowed and, if so, under what controls. The main themes running through the book are the need to understand and address major limitations in existing aquaculture laws and policies, particularly the “free-market” leasing/licensing approach and lack of integrated coastal planning processes; and the need to rethink national aquaculture laws and institutional arrangements in light of international environmental principles, such as integration, precaution, public participation, community-based management, intergenerational equity and indigenous rights developments. While previous books on this topic have tended to be descriptive and narrowly focused on just one country, Aquaculture Law and Policy attempts to be prescriptive and comparative in its analyses, suggesting ways in which aquaculture legislation might be reformed in light of sustainable development principles and drawing on global and other national experiences. David L. VanderZwaag , Canada Research Chair in Ocean Law and Governance at Dalhousie Law School, is a member of the Commission on Environmental Law (CEL) and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and presently co-chairs the IUCN Specialist Group on Oceans, Coasts and Coral Reefs. Gloria Chao practices environmental and energy law with the Vancouver office of Blake, Cassels & Graydon LLP. Prior to joining Blakes, Gloria obtained a Master of Laws degree in marine environmental law and completed a clerkship with the Supreme Court of Canada. Routledge advances in maritime research Edited by H. D. Smith Cardiff University, UK The oceans and seas of the world are at a critical juncture in their history. The pressures of development brought about by the globalization of the world economy continue to intensify through the major sectors of ocean use. In parallel, marine management and policy issues become larger, more numerous and more urgent. The response of this series is to provide in- depth analysis of ocean development, management and policy from a multi- disciplinary perspective, encompassing a wide range of aspects of interrelationships between the oceans and seas on the one hand, and mar- itime human activities on the other. Several strands run through the series: • Studies of the development and management of major ocean industries and uses including shipping and ports; strategic uses; mineral and energy resources; fisheries and aquaculture; the leisure industries; waste disposal and pollution; science and education; and conservation. • Inter- and multidisciplinary perspectives provided by the natural sci- ences, geography, economics, sociology, politics, law and history. • Responses to the need to devise integrated ocean policies and management measures which cover the deep oceans, the bordering seas and coastal zones. • Regional studies at a variety of geographical scales from large ocean regions to regional seas. The series is of interest to all concerned professionally with the oceans and seas, ranging from scientists and engineers to surveyors, planners, lawyers and policy-makers working in the public, private and voluntary sectors. It is also of wider public interest to all those interested in or having a stake in the world ocean and its bordering seas. 1 Development and Social Change in the Pacific Islands Edited by A. D. Couper 2 Marine Management in Disputed Areas The case of the Barents Sea Robin Churchill and Geir Ulfstein 3 Marine Mineral Resources Fillmore C. F. Earney 4 The Development of Integrated Sea-Use Management Edited by Hance D. Smith and Adalberto Vallega 5 Advances in the Science and Technology of Ocean Management Edited by Hance D. Smith 6 World Fishery Resources James R. Coull 7 International Law and Ocean Use Management Lawrence Juda 8 Sustainable Ocean Governance Adalberto Vallega 9 Shipping and Ports in the Twenty-First Century Globalization, technological change and the environment Edited by David Pinder and Brian Slack 10 Managing Britain’s Marine and Coastal Environment Towards a sustainable future Edited by Hance D. Smith and Jonathan Potts 11 International Maritime Transport Perspectives Edited by James McConville, Alfonso Morvillo and Heather Leggate 12 Towards Principled Oceans Governance Australian and Canadian approaches and challenges Edited by Donald R. Rothwell and David L. VanderZwaag 13 Aquaculture Law and Policy Towards principled access and operations Edited by David L. VanderZwaag and Gloria Chao Aquaculture Law and Policy Towards principled access and operations Edited by David L. VanderZwaag and Gloria Chao r1 Routledge ~ ~ Taylor & Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORK First published 2006 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Gloria Chao; individual chapters, the contributors Typeset in Garamond by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN 13: 978-0-415-70201-0 (hbk) 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA Published 2017 by Routledge Copyright © 2006 Selection and editorial matter, David L. VanderZwaag and The Open Access version of this book, available at www.tandfebooks.com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license. Contents List of illustrations x Notes on contributors xi Foreword xvi Acknowledgments xvii List of abbreviations xix Introduction: Aquaculture law and policy: struggling in the wake of the blue revolution 1 D A V I D L . V A N D E R Z W A A G PART I Aquaculture law and policy at the millennium: global trends and challenges 11 1 Global challenges in the regulation of aquaculture 13 W I L L I A M H O W A R T H 2 Global trends in aquaculture development 37 N A T H A N A E L H I S H A M U N D A PART II Canadian experiences and challenges in aquaculture law and policy 47 3 Canadian aquaculture and the principles of sustainable development: gauging the law and policy tides and charting a course 49 D A V I D L . V A N D E R Z W A A G , G L O R I A C H A O A N D M A R K C O V A N 4 Property rights in Canadian aquaculture: a principled approach 115 P H I L L I P M . S A U N D E R S A N D R I C H A R D F I N N 5 Conflict prevention and management: designing effective dispute resolution strategies for aquaculture siting and operations 171 M O I R A L . M C C O N N E L L 6 Mariculture and Canadian maritime law: an unexplored relationship 207 A L D O C H I R C O P 7 The taxation of aquaculture in Canada: a comparison with the taxation of agriculture and its policy implications 244 F A Y E W O O D M A N PART III Aboriginal title and rights in aquaculture 269 8 The potential impact of aboriginal title on aquaculture policy 271 D I A N A G I N N 9 Aquaculture law and policy in Canada and the duty to consult with Aboriginal peoples 293 R O N A L D A M U R P H Y , R I C H A R D D E V L I N A N D T A M A R A L O R I N C Z 10 Indigenous rights: implications for aquaculture 331 D O U G L A S S A N D E R S PART IV International trade dimensions in aquaculture 353 11 Aquaculture and the multilateral trade regime: issues of seafood safety, labeling and the environment 355 T E D L . M C D O R M A N A N D T O R S T E N S T R Ö M viii Contents 12 Food safety and farmed salmon: some implications of the European Union’s food policy for coastal communities 385 J O H N P H Y N E , R I C H A R D A P O S T L E A N D G E S T U R H O V G A A R D 13 Transgenic fish: some Canadian regulatory issues 421 D O U G L A S M O O D I E PART V Comparative national legal approaches 461 14 Offshore marine aquaculture in US federal waters: picking up the pieces and painting a picture 463 J E R E M Y F I R E S T O N E 15 Australian aquaculture: opportunities and challenges 488 M A R C U S H A W A R D 16 New Zealand mariculture: unfairly challenged? 504 H A M I S H R E N N I E 17 Conclusion: towards sustainable aquaculture through principled access and operations 524 A R T H U R H A N S O N Index 532 Contents ix Illustrations Figures 15.1 Australian aquaculture production 489 15.2 Australian aquaculture: value 489 16.1 New Zealand and places mentioned in the text 506 Tables 7.1 Provincial lease and license systems 260–261 16.1 Production and value of New Zealand marine aquaculture, 2001 510 Notes on contributors Richard Apostle is Professor of Sociology and Social Anthropology at Dal- housie University, Halifax, Canada. He is continuing aquaculture research and writing with Professors Hovgaard and Phyne. He is cur- rently completing a book concerning municipal change and local demo- cracy in the Faroes. Gloria Chao practices environmental law with Blake, Cassels & Graydon, Vancouver, Canada. Ms. Chao obtained a BCom from the University of British Columbia, her LLB and LLL degrees from the University of Ottawa, and her LLM degree, specializing in marine environmental and maritime law, from Dalhousie University. In 2002, Ms. Chao completed a clerkship with the Honourable Mr. Justice Louis LeBel of the Supreme Court of Canada. Aldo Chircop , JSD, is Associate Professor of Law, Dalhousie Law School, Halifax, Canada, with cross-appointments to the Faculty of Graduate Studies (Marine Affairs Programme) and Faculty of Arts and Social Sci- ences (International Development Studies Programme). On leave of absence from Dalhousie University (2003–2005), he held the Canadian Chair in Marine Environmental Protection at the World Maritime Uni- versity, Malmö, Sweden. Dr. Chircop’s research interests are in compara- tive ocean law and policy, law of the sea, international marine environmental law, maritime law and integrated coastal management. He is co-editor of the Ocean Yearbook (University of Chicago Press and Trans- national Press) and co-author of Maritime Law (Toronto: Irwin Law, 2003). Mark Covan , LLM, is Counsel with the Federal Prosecution Service, Department of Justice, Canada, and a former Research Associate with the AquaNet Law and Policy Project, Marine and Environmental Law Pro- gramme, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada. Richard Devlin , LLM, is Professor of Law, University Research Professor, and Associate Dean, Graduate Studies and Research, Dalhousie Univer- sity, Halifax, Canada. He has published over forty articles in various Canadian, American and British journals, and is editor of Canadian Per- spectives on Legal Theory , and co-editor of Critical Disability Theory: Essays in Philosophy, Politics, Policy and Law Jeremy Firestone , JD, PhD, is Assistant Professor, College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, Newark, USA. He has practiced as a lawyer for the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the State of Michigan on environmental protection and natural resources issues. His current research is focused on fish and wildlife issues and gov- ernance, including invasive species, ship–whale interactions, and offshore wind power development. He is a member of a multidisciplinary research team developing an operational framework for aquaculture in the US exclusive economic zone. Richard Finn obtained his LLB from Dalhousie Law School, Halifax, Canada, in 2003 where he participated in the School’s Marine and Environmental Law Program (MELP), graduating with a specialization in marine law. Richard also holds undergraduate and graduate degrees in biological science. His interest in coastal development and management issues led him to become involved in the national AquaNet policy initi- ative in the summer of 2002. Diana Ginn , LLM, is Associate Professor of Law, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada. She is a Member of the Nova Scotia Barristers’ Society, and a former Member of the Law Society of Upper Canada and the Law Society of the Northwest Territories. She teaches and writes in a variety of areas, including aboriginal title, administrative law, property law, and gender and the law. Arthur J. Hanson , LOC, PhD, is Distinguished Fellow with the Inter- national Institute of Sustainable Development, having served as President and CEO of IISD from 1992 to 1998. Dr. Hanson was named an Oceans Ambassador for the Minister of Fisheries and Oceans from June 2000 to June 2004. In August 2003, he was appointed an Officer in the Order of Canada. He is currently Lead Expert and Member of the China Council for International Cooperation on Environment and Development, a member of the Canadian Foundation for Innovation, and a Mentor in the Trudeau Foundation. Dr. Hanson is engaged in research on Biotechnol- ogy and Sustainable Development through the Canadian Biotechnology Advisory Committee. Marcus Haward , PhD, is Associate Professor and Head of School in the School of Government at the University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia. He is also Program Leader, Policy Program, Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre. He has research interests in fisheries management and oceans policy, and has published extensively in each of these areas. He is a member of the Australia Canada Ocean xii Notes on contributors Research Network (ACORN), with research interests focusing on Australian and Canadian experiences in oceans policy development and governance. Nathanael Hishamunda is Fishery Planning Officer with the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) in Rome, Italy. He holds an MSc in Aquaculture Economics and a PhD in Agricultural Eco- nomics with a Minor in Agriculture Policy, both from Auburn Univer- sity, Alabama, USA. Gestur Hovgaard is Senior Researcher, Center for Local and Regional Development, Klaksvík, the Faroes. In 2002, he was awarded a post-doc- toral fellowship at the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada. Dr. Hovgaard’s interests are in the fields of economic sociology and political economy. William Howarth is Professor of Environmental Law at the University of Kent at Canterbury, United Kingdom. He is General Editor of the journal Water Law and has published extensively on water and environ- mental law. His international work has involved advising the govern- ments of Turkey, Romania, Thailand and Bulgaria on water and fisheries legislation, and he has also acted as a consultant to the Food and Agricul- ture Organization of the United Nations and national bodies including the National Rivers Authority, the Environment Agency and the former Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions. Tamara Lorincz graduated with a combined MBA and LLB degree from Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada, in 2003, with a specialization in marine and environmental law. Ms. Lorincz holds a BA from the Univer- sity of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada, and a BCom from the University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada. She is a legal researcher and was recently nom- inated to the national board of the Sierra Legal Defence Fund. Currently, Ms. Lorincz is the Coordinator of the Nova Scotia Environmental Network, a provincial non-profit organization. Moira L. McConnell , BA, LLB, PhD, is Professor of Law at Dalhousie Law School, Halifax, Canada, and is the Director of its Marine and Environ- mental Law Institute. Dr. McConnell’s teaching and research interests are in the fields of marine environmental protection, shipping, law of the sea, biosecurity, integrated coastal and ocean management, business and environmental law/management, public and corporate governance, regu- latory design, dispute resolution processes and international trade and environment. She is a special adviser on maritime issues to UN agencies (the International Maritime Organization and the International Labour Organization) and is a member of the IUCN’s Commission on Environ- mental Law. She is a co-editor of the interdisciplinary Ocean Yearbook and has published widely in the fields of international and environmental law, Notes on contributors xiii regulatory system design, maritime law and policy, social justice and human rights. Ted L. McDorman , LLM, is Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Victo- ria, Victoria, Canada. Professor McDorman has written extensively on ocean law, policy and management issues. Since 2000, he has been “editor-in-chief” of Ocean Development and International Law: The Journal of Marine Affairs . From June 2002 to 2004, he served as Academic-in-Resi- dence, Bureau of Legal Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs and Inter- national Trade, Ottawa. Canada. Douglas Moodie , LLM, is former Assistant Professor of Law, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada. He is a Member of both the Nova Scotia Barristers’ Society and the Law Society of Upper Canada and is currently a Senior Solicitor with the Nova Scotia Department of Justice. He is a part- time lecturer in the Political Science Department of Saint Mary’s Univer- sity Halifax. His research interests include environmental and First Nations law. Ronalda Murphy , LLM, is Associate Professor of Law, Dalhousie Univer- sity, Halifax, Canada. She teaches a wide variety of courses, including Canadian constitutional law and comparative constitutional law. Profes- sor Murphy lectured full-time at the University of the Witswatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa, and worked on the transition from apartheid to constitutional democracy from 1991 to 1994. Her publications are in the fields of constitutional law and theory, evidence law, aboriginal law, feminist legal theory and postmodernism. John Phyne is Professor of Sociology and Coordinator of the Interdiscipli- nary Studies in Aquatic Resources Program at St. Francis Xavier Univer- sity, Antigonish, Canada. His research focuses upon the socio-economic and regulatory dimensions of the salmon aquaculture industry. He is the author of Disputed Waters: Rural Social Change and Conflicts Associated with the Irish Salmon Farming Industry, 1987–1995 Hamish Rennie , PhD, is Senior Lecturer, Department of Geography, Tourism and Environmental Planning, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand, specializing in fisheries/aquacultural geography and coastal planning. Prior to joining the University of Waikato in 1995, Dr. Rennie spent approximately twelve years working in policy roles for various central government departments. He helped write parts of New Zealand’s aquacul- ture and resource management legislation and its Coastal Policy Statement, and has worked for applicants and as a commissioner hearing applications and proposed plan changes. He is a Member of the New Zealand Planning Institute and the New Zealand Association of Resource Management. Douglas Sanders is Professor Emeritus, Faculty of Law, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada, and an LLM program professor, xiv Notes on contributors Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. He has worked on indigenous legal issues since the mid-1960s, including the fishing rights case Regina v. Jack , which was later influential in the leading fishing rights decision Sparrow v. The Queen . He has done comparative work on indigenous and tribal issues in a number of countries, including Aus- tralia, India, Japan, Malaysia, Norway and the United States. Phillip M. Saunders is Dean and Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, Dal- housie University, Halifax, Canada, with a cross-appointment to the School for Resource and Environmental Studies. He is a member of the Nova Scotia Bar. His teaching and research interests include international marine and environmental law, maritime boundary delimitation and fish- eries law. Professor Saunders was formerly with the International Centre for Ocean Development, as Senior Policy Adviser and as Field Representative, South Pacific. Torsten Ström , LLM, of the Bar of Ontario, is Senior Counsel with the Trade Law Bureau at the Department of Justice/Department of Inter- national Trade. He has previously published articles and given presenta- tions on the legal aspects of the trade and environment interface. David VanderZwaag , PhD, is Professor of Law and Canada Research Chair in Ocean Law and Governance at Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada. He was a co-founder of Dalhousie’s interdisciplinary program in Marine Affairs. He is a member of the Commission on Environmental Law, the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and co-chair of the Specialist Group on Oceans, Coasts and Coral Reefs. Faye Woodman is Professor of Law, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Canada. Her teaching and research areas are primarily in the areas of property (broadly conceived) and taxation. The latter interest dates back to a stint at the Department of Finance, Ottawa, Canada, working on tax policy. She is most recently the co-editor of and a contributor to a text on the law of trusts. Notes on contributors xv Foreword When I was first exposed to aquaculture as an adviser to the Nova Scotia Department of Fisheries, the province had recently passed an Act respecting aquaculture and it was my job to brief the federal government. Off to Ottawa I went, where I spent a very unpleasant day hearing from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans lawyers why the province had no con- stitutional jurisdiction to do what the Act says we may. Twenty years later, things are a bit better but we continue to struggle with the ongoing challenge of providing a workable and cooperative gover- nance structure for an industry whose development, and the issues associated therewith, have dramatically outpaced our law and policy capacity. Aquacul- ture is heralded by its proponents as part of the solution to the world’s food shortage and as an alternative to the dwindling wild fisheries. Aquaculture opponents cite pollution, food health, animal welfare, conflict of use and plain old NIMBY (“not in my backyard”) as reasons for expending phenom- enal energy opposing any form of aquaculture. This book is a thoughtful and comprehensive synthesis and analysis of the plethora of social, economic, environmental and legal issues that must be addressed in order to ensure that the world’s growing aquaculture industry is sustainable into the future. There are no perfect resolutions to the tensions surrounding aquaculture. Every country will have nuances in its governance regimes, and every aquaculture site will require different considerations, depending on the ecosystem in which it resides. This book provides an excellent source document for anyone interested in understanding the issues facing one of the most rapidly growing and complex areas of the global food basket. The authors also have the courage to provide some well-reasoned recommendations that should move through currently acrimonious debates to a more constructive dialogue. Peter C. Underwood Deputy Minister Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources Acknowledgments This volume, the result of a four-year research project centered at Dalhousie Law School, would not have been possible without funding support from AquaNet, Canada’s Research Network in Aquaculture. Special thanks goes to the funders of AquaNet, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC), in partner- ship with Industry Canada. Many of the chapters of this volume have benefitted from discussions and critiques at the “Canadian Aquaculture Law and Policy Workshop: Towards Principled Access and Operations,” held in Halifax, Nova Scotia, 26–28 February 2003. Workshop sponsorship by AquaNet, the Nova Scotia Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, and the Office of the Commis- sioner for Aquaculture Development, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, is grate- fully acknowledged. The Workshop Steering Committee consisted of Yves Bastien, Commissioner for Aquaculture Development, Fisheries and Oceans Canada; Mark Burgham, Director Aquaculture Policy, Office of Sustainable Aquaculture, Fisheries and Oceans Canada; Norman Dale, Northern Coastal Information and Research Program, University of Northern British Colum- bia; Ralph Matthews, Professor of Sociology, University of British Colum- bia; David Rideout, Executive Director, Canadian Aquaculture Industry Alliance; Peter Underwood, Deputy Minister, Nova Scotia Department of Agriculture and Fisheries; and Richard Wex, Director-General, Office of Sustainable Aquaculture, Fisheries and Oceans Canada. Understanding of aboriginal title and rights issues in aquaculture was greatly enhanced by participation of a number of First Nations organizations and the sharing of aboriginal perspectives at the Workshop. Those particip- ants, among others, included Martin Weinstein, ‘Namgis First Nation Treaty Office; Patricia Doyle-Bedwell, Dalhousie Law School; Hugh Braker, Tseshaht First Nation of the Nuu-chan-multh People (West Coast Vancou- ver Island); and Arnie Narcisse, BC Aboriginal Fisheries Commission. Thanks are also owed to Annick Van Houtte, Legal Officer with FAO’s Development Law Service. She helped organize meetings of the editors with various FAO specialists in fisheries and aquaculture and provided a wealth of information about aquaculture legislative approaches and challenges around the globe. Appreciation is also extended to Dr. Alex Brown, Head, Environmental Affairs, Undersecretariat for Fisheries, Chile. He not only provided researchers with an overview of aquaculture law and policy developments in Chile but was instrumental in convening a further workshop (Iquique, Chile, 1–3 September 2004) under Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) auspices, comparing the implementation of environmental prin- ciples and policies in aquaculture. Numerous persons at Dalhousie Law School helped make this volume a reality. Molly Ross patiently undertook meticulous word processing. Ann Morrison, Law School Librarian, provided space in the library for student researchers and enthusiastically added the project’s webpage to the library’s website. Former Dean Dawn Russell ensured adequate staff support and facilitated a positive research environment. Over twenty research assistants drawn from students in the LLB program assisted chapter authors, and many of the students are specifically recognized in the subsequent chapters. Susan Rolston, Seawinds Consulting Services, was tireless in providing editorial assistance and in formatting the book for publication. The Canada Foundation for Innovation (CFI) was also instrumental in supporting research for this volume. Infrastructure funding was provided by CFI for the establishment of the Ocean Law and Governance Research Centre at Dalhousie Law School. Each of the authors deserves thanks for being patient during the rather lengthy peer review and production processes. Most of the chapters were originally written in 2003, and the authors have undertaken various updat- ing efforts to at least the end of 2004 and in some cases into 2005. David VanderZwaag and Gloria Chao xviii Acknowledgments Abbreviations AAFRD Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development ABARE Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics ABMA aquaculture bay management area ACAP Atlantic Coastal Action Program (Canada) ADR alternative dispute resolution AECC Aquaculture Environmental Coordinating Committee (New Brunswick) AFFA Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry Australia AFMA Australian Fisheries Management Authority AIA advance informed agreement ALC Aquaculture Licensing Committee (Newfoundland and Labrador) ALMB Aquaculture Leasing Management Board (Prince Edward Island) AMA aquaculture management area AOP Aquaculture Occupation Permit (New Brunswick) APF Aquaculture Policy Framework ASEC Aquaculture Site Evaluation Committee (New Brunswick) ASMFC Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (United States) BC British Columbia BCAL British Columbia Assets and Land Corporation BCMAL British Columbia Ministry of Agriculture and Lands BIEAP Burry Inlet Environmental Action Program BMA bay management agreement BMP best management practice BNA Act British North America Act BSE bovine spongiform encephalopathy BST bovine somatotropin CAAPF Concentrated Aquatic Animal Production Facility CAAR Coastal Alliance for Aquaculture Reform CAC Codex Alimentarius Commission CAIA Canadian Aquaculture Industry Alliance CAIS Canadian Agriculture Income Stabilization Program CAP Common Agricultural Policy (of the European Union) CBAC Canadian Biotechnology Advisory Committee CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CCFAM Canadian Council of Fisheries and Aquaculture Ministers CCFL Codex Committee on Food Labeling CCPC Canadian-controlled private corporation CCSBT Commission for the Conservation of Southern Bluefin Tuna CEA Clean Environment Act (New Brunswick) CEAA Canadian Environmental Assessment Act CEPA Canadian Environmental Protection Act CFIA Canadian Food Inspection Agency CFIP Canadian Farm Income Program CFP Common Fisheries Policy (of the European Union) CLC Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage CMA coastal management area CSI Environment and Development in Coastal Regions and in Small Islands (UNESCO) CWA “Clean Water Act” ( Federal Water Pollution Control Act ) (United States) CZMA Coastal Zone Management Act (United States) DAF Department of Agriculture and Fisheries (Nova Scotia) DAFA Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Aquaculture (New Brunswick) DFO Fisheries and Oceans Canada (Department of Fisheries and Oceans) DG – SANCO Directorate-General – Health and Consumer Protection (European Commission) DM Deputy Minister DNV Det Norske Veritas DPS distinct population segment DR dispute resolution DSB Dispute Settlement Body (of the World Trade Organization) EAO Environmental Assessment Office (British Columbia) EAP environmental assessment process EC European Commission EEC European Economic Community EEZ exclusive economic zone EFSA European Food Safety Authority EFTA European Free Trade Association EIA environmental impact assessment ENGO environmental non-governmental organization xx Abbreviations