TOWARDS ELIMINATION OF DOG MEDIATED HUMAN RABIES EDITED BY : Salome Dürr, Anna Sophie Fahrion, Lea Knopf and Louise H. Taylor PUBLISHED IN : Frontiers in Veterinary Science & Frontiers in Public Health 1 Frontiers in Veterinary Science & Frontiers in Public Health September 2017 | Towards Elimination of Dog Mediated Human Rabies Frontiers Copyright Statement © Copyright 2007-2017 Frontiers Media SA. All rights reserved. All content included on this site, such as text, graphics, logos, button icons, images, video/audio clips, downloads, data compilations and software, is the property of or is licensed to Frontiers Media SA (“Frontiers”) or its licensees and/or subcontractors. The copyright in the text of individual articles is the property of their respective authors, subject to a license granted to Frontiers. The compilation of articles constituting this e-book, wherever published, as well as the compilation of all other content on this site, is the exclusive property of Frontiers. 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Find out more on how to host your own Frontiers Research Topic or contribute to one as an author by contacting the Frontiers Editorial Office: researchtopics@frontiersin.org TOWARDS ELIMINATION OF DOG MEDIATED HUMAN RABIES Topic Editors: Salome Dürr, University of Bern, Switzerland Anna Sophie Fahrion, World Health Organization, Switzerland Lea Knopf, World Health Organization, Switzerland Louise H. Taylor, Global Alliance for Rabies Control, United States Rabies is an ancient zoonotic viral disease that still exerts a high impact on human and animal health. The disease is almost 100% fatal after clinical signs appear, and it kills tens of thousands of people per year worldwide, particularly in Africa and many parts of Asia. Although the disease in humans can be prevented by timely post-exposure prophylaxis, its access and affordability is limited in rabies endemic countries. With 99% of infections in humans caused by rabid domestic dog bites, controlling the infection in this reservoir population has been proven to be most effective to reduce and eliminate human rabies cases. In this context, this Research Topic invited contributions on the control and elimination of dog mediated human rabies. Publications on epidemiological, educational, policy-related and economic aspects of dog and human rabies surveillance, implementation of control in dogs and humans and scientific documentation of success stories were consolidated. We hope that these articles contribute to reaching the ambitious goal, set by key players in global health, of the elimination of dog mediated human rabies by 2030. Citation: Dürr, S., Fahrion, A. S., Knopf, L., Taylor, L. H., eds. (2017). Towards Elimination of Dog Mediated Human Rabies. Lausanne: Frontiers Media. doi: 10.3389/978-2-88945-299-6 An owner has his dog vaccinated during a mass dog vaccination campaign in the neighbourhood of Payatas in Manila, Philippines. ©2016 Geloy Conception and Global Alliance for Rabies Control 2 Frontiers in Veterinary Science & Frontiers in Public Health September 2017 | Towards Elimination of Dog Mediated Human Rabies 05 Editorial: Towards Elimination of Dog Mediated Human Rabies Salome Dürr, Anna S. Fahrion, Lea Knopf and Louise H. Taylor Identification of Challenges and Solutions: 07 The Road to Dog Rabies Control and Elimination—What Keeps Us from Moving Faster? Anna S. Fahrion, Louise H. Taylor, Gregorio Torres, Thomas Müller, Salome Dürr, Lea Knopf, Katinka de Balogh, Louis H. Nel, Mary Joy Gordoncillo and Bernadette Abela-Ridder Evidence and Challenges of Rabies Elimination: 15 Tribulations of the Last Mile: Sides from a Regional Program Victor J. Del Rio Vilas, Mary J. Freire de Carvalho, Marco A. N. Vigilato, Felipe Rocha, Alexandra Vokaty, Julio A. Pompei, Baldomero Molina Flores, Natael Fenelon and Ottorino Cosivi 20 Eliminating Dog-Mediated Rabies in Sikkim, India: A 10-Year Pathway to Success for the SARAH Program Helen Byrnes, Andrea Britton and Thinlay Bhutia 26 A Century Spent Combating Rabies in Morocco (1911–2015): How Much Longer? Sami Darkaoui, Florence Cliquet, Marine Wasniewski, Emmanuelle Robardet, Nadia Aboulfidaa, Mohammed Bouslikhane and Ouafaa Fassi-Fihri 42 Toward Elimination of Dog-Mediated Human Rabies: Experiences from Implementing a Large-scale Demonstration Project in Southern Tanzania Emmanuel Abraham Mpolya, Tiziana Lembo, Kennedy Lushasi, Rebecca Mancy, Eberhard M. Mbunda, Selemani Makungu, Matthew Maziku, Lwitiko Sikana, Gurdeep Jaswant, Sunny Townsend, François-Xavier Meslin, Bernadette Abela-Ridder, Chanasa Ngeleja, Joel Changalucha, Zacharia Mtema, Maganga Sambo, Geofrey Mchau, Kristyna Rysava, Alphoncina Nanai, Rudovick Kazwala, Sarah Cleaveland and Katie Hampson 52 The Ilocos Norte Communities against Rabies Exposure Elimination Project in the Philippines: Epidemiological and Economic Aspects Loida M. Valenzuela, Sarah I. Jayme, Anna Charinna B. Amparo, Louise H. Taylor, Maria Pinky Z. Dela Cruz, Dianne A. Licuan, Rosebelle Gamal-Bitao and Louis H. Nel Improvement of Surveillance: 63 Qualitative Research to Design Sustainable Community-Based Surveillance for Rabies in Northern Australia and Papua New Guinea Victoria J. Brookes, Emma Kennedy, Phillipa Dhagapan and Michael P . Ward Table of Contents 3 Frontiers in Veterinary Science & Frontiers in Public Health September 2017 | Towards Elimination of Dog Mediated Human Rabies 72 Addressing the Disconnect between the Estimated, Reported, and True Rabies Data: The Development of a Regional African Rabies Bulletin Terence P . Scott, Andre Coetzer, Anna S. Fahrion and Louis H. Nel Vaccination and Dog Management Strategies: 78 Rabies Vaccination Targets for Stray Dog Populations Tiffany Leung and Stephen A. Davis 88 Corrigendum: Determinants of Vaccination Coverage and Consequences for Rabies Control in Bali, Indonesia Riana A. Arief, Katie Hampson, Andri Jatikusumah, Maria D. W. Widyastuti, Sunandar, Chaerul Basri, Anak A. G. Putra, Iwan Willyanto, Agnes T. S. Estoepangestie, I. W. Mardiana, I. K. G. N. Kesuma, I. P . Sumantra, Paul F . Doherty Jr., M. D. Salman, Jeff Gilbert and Fred Unger 89 Comparing Methods of Assessing Dog Rabies Vaccination Coverage in Rural and Urban Communities in Tanzania Maganga Sambo, Paul C. D. Johnson, Karen Hotopp, Joel Changalucha, Sarah Cleaveland, Rudovick Kazwala, Tiziana Lembo, Ahmed Lugelo, Kennedy Lushasi, Mathew Maziku, Eberhard Mbunda, Zacharia Mtema, Lwitiko Sikana, Sunny E. Townsend and Katie Hampson 101 The Role of Dog Population Management in Rabies Elimination—A Review of Current Approaches and Future Opportunities Louise H. Taylor, Ryan M. Wallace, Deepashree Balaram, Joann M. Lindenmayer, Douglas C. Eckery, Beryl Mutonono-Watkiss, Ellie Parravani and Louis H. Nel Cost-Effectiveness and Economic Considerations: 116 Cost Description and Comparative Cost Efficiency of Post-Exposure Prophylaxis and Canine Mass Vaccination against Rabies in N’Djamena, Chad Rolande Mindekem, Monique Sarah Lechenne, Kemdongarti Service Naissengar, Assandi Oussiguéré, Bidjeh Kebkiba, Daugla Doumagoum Moto, Idriss Oumar Alfaroukh,Laurent Tinoanga Ouedraogo, Sahidou Salifou and Jakob Zinsstag 127 Elimination of Dog-Mediated Human Rabies Deaths by 2030: Needs Assessment and Alternatives for Progress Based on Dog Vaccination Ryan M. Wallace, Eduardo A. Undurraga, Jesse D. Blanton, Julie Cleaton and Richard Franka 141 Rabies Control: Could Innovative Financing Break the Deadlock? Susan C. Welburn, Paul G. Coleman and Jakob Zinsstag 4 Frontiers in Veterinary Science & Frontiers in Public Health September 2017 | Towards Elimination of Dog Mediated Human Rabies August 2017 | Volume 4 | Article 142 5 Editorial published: 31 August 2017 doi: 10.3389/fvets.2017.00142 Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org Edited by: Andres M. Perez, University of Minnesota, United States Reviewed by: Flavie Luce Goutard, Agricultural Research Centre for International Development, France *Correspondence: Salome Dürr salome.duerr@vetsuisse.unibe.ch Specialty section: This article was submitted to Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics, a section of the journal Frontiers in Veterinary Science Received: 21 June 2017 Accepted: 14 August 2017 Published: 31 August 2017 Citation: Dürr S, Fahrion AS, Knopf L and Taylor LH (2017) Editorial: Towards Elimination of Dog Mediated Human Rabies. Front. Vet. Sci. 4:142. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2017.00142 Editorial: towards Elimination of dog Mediated Human rabies Salome Dürr 1 *, Anna S. Fahrion 2 , Lea Knopf 2 and Louise H. Taylor 3 1 Veterinary Public Health Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland, 2 Neglected Zoonotic Diseases, Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 3 Global Alliance for Rabies Control, Manhattan, KS, United States Keywords: rabies, elimination, global health, resources, vaccination, dogs, one health, zoonosis Editorial on the Research Topic Towards Elimination of Dog Mediated Human Rabies Rabies is a zoonotic viral disease with a high impact on human and animal health. The disease is almost 100% fatal after clinical signs appear and kills tens of thousands of people per year worldwide. About 99% of infections in humans are caused by rabid domestic dog bites. Human disease is related to poverty, with the highest burden in Asian and African low-income settings. Along with the group of neglected tropical diseases, increasingly recognized by high-level global health policy as indicators of functionality of health systems, rabies is scheduled for potential elimination as part of the UN sustainable development goals. In late 2015, the international rabies community, represented by more than 100 (mostly rabies endemic) countries, set a global target of eliminating human rabies mediated by dogs by 2030. Despite this momentum, rabies has received relatively less international attention compared with some of the other NTDs as of yet. In this research topic, 123 authors contributed 15 articles (9 original research articles, 4 perspec- tive pieces, and 2 reviews) from different regions in the world (4 from Australasia, 5 from Africa, 1 from Latin America, 4 global, and 1 theoretical) discussing various aspects of working towards the achievement of this goal. The collection brings together the experience and lessons learned from rabies control programs small and large, research aimed at improving the design and cost-effectiveness of rabies control programs, and analysis of the resources needed to expand rabies control efforts. Our understanding of rabies control is sufficient, and the key tools are available to eliminate the disease. However, an overview by Fahrion et al. highlights the challenges and barriers to successfully implementing sustainable control of the disease. This article sets the scene for the whole collection, by discussing not just the gaps but also possible solutions for the socio-political, organizational, technical, and resource-linked issues that are being addressed by many different stakeholders. It highlights the need for applied research, a feature that has been taken up by most of the articles of this research topic. Evidence that rabies can be locally eliminated has been built in recent years in a variety of settings, demonstrated here by Byrnes et al., Valenzuela et al., and Mpolya et al., describing successful state- wide programmes in Sikkim, India, Ilocos Norte, Philippines, and Southeast Tanzania and Pemba Island. All the programs were implemented by the government, in collaboration with one or more organizations, such as NGOs, WHO, OIE, national and international research institutes, and private foundations. Mass rabies vaccination in dogs and promotion of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) in humans were the common interventions, supported by dog population management (Byrnes et al.) and promotion of surveillance (Valenzuela et al.; Mpolya et al.), including the use of innovative methods such as mobile phone tools (Mpolya et al.), and the transition to intradermal PEP delivery (Mpolya et al.). Two facts were highlighted in all case studies, namely, the importance of a One Health approach demanding involvement of stakeholders from the veterinary and public health sectors 6 Dürr et al. Editorial Dog Rabies Elimination Frontiers in Veterinary Science | www.frontiersin.org August 2017 | Volume 4 | Article 142 and the challenge of sustaining progress in areas situated amidst rabies endemic areas. From all projects there are lessons to be learned that can be used to support efforts elsewhere. This is particularly true for the coordinated approach to rabies control programs across Latin America and Caribbean (LAC), described by Del Rio Vilas et al., whose lessons derived are highly relevant to large-scale regional elimination goals. Although the target to eliminate rabies from LAC had to be reset four times since the implementation of the program in 1983 (it is currently set to 2022), a massive reduction of the human and animal rabies cases to (almost) 0 in most of the LAC countries has been achieved. One of the key messages is the need for adapted regional and national strategies to recognize that countries can vary enormously in their capacities. Long-term intensive programs are required to achieve sustain- able elimination and ensure that the reduction of cases is not followed by a resurgence of the incidence. The example from Morocco described by Darkaoui et al. demonstrates how inad- equate implementation of the law, slack requests for responsibility from dog owners, and weak collaboration between Ministries impeded success in controlling rabies. Arief et al. also highlight the need for sustained control efforts in Bali, Indonesia, where dramatic reduction of rabies cases were achieved, but resurgence of disease has shown that elimination was still not possible. What are the knowledge and action gaps that need to be addressed to implement sustainable rabies control programs at small and large scales? Concrete examples are addressed in articles of this research topic: • The availability of high-quality surveillance data to support control efforts is absolutely vital. Unified reporting platforms have to be established (such as the epidemiological rabies bulletin for Africa proposed by Scott et al.) and sustainable community engagement has to be ensured for effective sur- veillance (Brookes et al.). The latter can only be achieved by the use of culturally adapted communication pathways. • For concrete planning of control programs, detailed questions must be answered. For example, which subpopulation of dogs should be targeted in specific environments to reach the overall goal of elimination of rabies from the population? Theoretical modeling approaches can be used to answer such questions. In their setting, Leung and Davis identified the free-roaming owned dogs to be the most critical population to be vaccinated. Arief et al. conducted an observational study and identified puppies and dogs living in rural areas as having a higher risk of being unvaccinated, thus the focus should be set on these populations. Taylor et al. provide a comprehensive overview in their review on dog population management, an intervention for which evidence of its benefits with regards to rabies control is still lacking. The authors advocate for cost-effectiveness studies for dog population management and suggested that safe, effective, cheap, and injectable contraceptives for females should be a research priority to benefit management of dog populations. • The important job of assessing the vaccination coverages achieved in free-roaming dogs is often neglected. Sambo et al. found that transect studies (counting vaccinated and unvac- cinated dogs in the streets) soon after the campaign is cheap, quick, and provides good results. It is, therefore, more appro- priate for routine monitoring of mass vaccination campaigns than household or school-based surveys. • Not only in relation to rabies, but any control program, cost-effectiveness and identification of funding needs and options are crucial to ensure sustainability. Mindekem et al. found that a strategy that combines canine vaccination with the provision of PEP is more cost-effective in the long term than relying on PEP alone, particularly when communication across the human and veterinary health sectors is guaranteed to minimize unnecessary PEP application. Wallace et al. evaluated funding and capacity needs to reach the elimination of canine rabies globally and identified cheaper vaccine and increased efficiencies in vaccine delivery and application as ways to reduce these projected costs, but predicted that com- plementary dog population management interventions would markedly increase costs. Innovative financing mechanisms are needed to secure sufficient financial support, which is frequently a stumbling block to ensure that comprehensive vaccination plans can move forwards. Welburn et al. consider whether Development Impact Bonds could help to fill this funding gap. Such a finance model would enable investors taking on the risk of program delivery to ensure stricter man- agement of implementation. It is noteworthy that almost all contributions highlighted the need for an intersectoral approach involving all stakeholders, including the engagement of the communities. A One Health approach along the path to disease elimination (from resource allocation, to raising awareness, surveillance, implementation of control interventions, and eventual elimination) is a crucial requirement to realize the goal of 2030. To borrow words from Wallace et al., this research topic “hopes to stimulate and inform the necessary discussion on global and regional strategic plan- ning, resource mobilization, and continuous execution of rabies virus elimination” that will be necessary to eliminate human- mediated canine rabies by 2030—a target that should not be reset. aUtHor CoNtriBUtioNS All the authors were involved in writing the article and in editing contributions to this research topic. They all agree to the final version of this article. Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was con- ducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Copyright © 2017 Dürr, Fahrion, Knopf and Taylor. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic prac- tice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. May 2017 | Volume 5 | Article 103 7 PersPective published: 15 May 2017 doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2017.00103 Frontiers in Public Health | www.frontiersin.org Edited by: Leland Shapiro, University of Colorado at Denver, USA Reviewed by: Edward N. Janoff, University of Colorado at Denver, USA Ashley C. Banyard, Animal and Plant Health Agency, United Kingdom *Correspondence: Anna S. Fahrion fahrion.as@gmail.com Specialty section: This article was submitted to Infectious Diseases, a section of the journal Frontiers in Public Health Received: 07 November 2016 Accepted: 18 April 2017 Published: 15 May 2017 Citation: Fahrion AS, Taylor LH, Torres G, Müller T, Dürr S, Knopf L, de Balogh K, Nel LH, Gordoncillo MJ and Abela-Ridder B (2017) The Road to Dog Rabies Control and Elimination—What Keeps Us from Moving Faster? Front. Public Health 5:103. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2017.00103 the road to Dog rabies control and elimination—What Keeps Us from Moving Faster? Anna S. Fahrion 1 *, Louise H. Taylor 2 , Gregorio Torres 3 , Thomas Müller 4 , Salome Dürr 5 , Lea Knopf 1 , Katinka de Balogh 6 , Louis H. Nel 2,7 , Mary Joy Gordoncillo 3 and Bernadette Abela-Ridder 1 1 Neglected Zoonotic Diseases, Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, 2 Global Alliance for Rabies Control, Manhattan, KS, USA, 3 World Organisation for Animal Health, Paris, France, 4 Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Löffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald, Germany, 5 Veterinary Public Health Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland, 6 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Bangkok, Thailand, 7 Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa Rabies, a vaccine preventable neglected tropical disease, still claims an estimated 35,000–60,000 human lives annually. The international community, with more than 100 endemic countries, has set a global target of 0 human deaths from dog-transmitted rabies by 2030. While it has been proven in several countries and regions that elimination of rabies as a public health problem is feasible and tools are available, rabies deaths globally have not yet been prevented effectively. While there has been extensive rabies research, specific areas of implementation for control and elimination have not been sufficiently addressed. This article highlights some of the commonest perceived barriers for countries to implementing rabies control and elimination programs and discusses possible solutions for sociopolitical, organizational, technical, and resource-linked requirements, following the pillars of the global framework for the elimination of dog- mediated human rabies adopted at the global rabies meeting in December 2015. Keywords: rabies, dog rabies, neglected tropical diseases, zero human deaths, global framework, implementation BAcKGrOUND During the past decade, neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) have gained more recognition on the global health and development agendas (1–3). The transition from the Millennium Development Goals to the Sustainable Development Goals has renewed emphasis on ending the inequality that has deprived neglected communities from access to effective and affordable health care (Goal 3.8) and includes a specific goal to end NTDs by 2030 (Goal 3.3) (4). Rabies, a viral disease categorized by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a NTD, kills tens of thousands of people every year, mostly among underserved populations in Africa and Asia; more than 95% of human rabies deaths result from the bites of infected dogs (5, 6). While the disease is almost 100% fatal, effective human and dog vaccines to prevent rabies are available. Elimination of dog-transmitted rabies as a public health problem is feasible (7, 8) by vaccinating dogs and providing post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) to humans until dog rabies is eliminated (5). FiGUre 1 | Global framework for the elimination of dog-mediated human rabies 8 Fahrion et al. Road to Dog Rabies Elimination Frontiers in Public Health | www.frontiersin.org May 2017 | Volume 5 | Article 103 Elimination of canine rabies is integral to the WHO–OIE 1 – FAO 2 tripartite collaboration, which works at the animal–human– ecosystems interface (9, 10). A joint global meeting (Geneva, December 2015) marked a milestone at which human and animal health sectors agreed a framework to eliminate canine rabies with the vision of ending dog-mediated human rabies by 2030 (8) ( Figure 1 ). All 180 Member countries of the OIE affirmed this commitment in Resolution N.26 adopted by the World Assembly of Delegates of the OIE in May 2016. 3 Rabies is widely recognized as a public health threat that warrants prioritization of control efforts in Asia (11–13), Africa (14), and among the least developed nations globally (15). Health leaders are increasingly aware that this fatal disease could be eliminated as a public health problem cost effectively in a rela- tively short time (7, 16), yet rabies remains neglected and progress remains slow. While there has been extensive research on the rabies virus, a comparative lack of operational research has led to knowledge 1 World Organization for Animal Health. 2 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 3 http://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/About_us/docs/pdf/Session/2016/A_ RESO_2016_public.pdf. gaps in how to design and implement control and elimination programs where they are needed most (11, 17) and calls for a “science of rabies elimination” (18). What barriers remain to coordinated efforts within and among countries? What is needed to transform the increased public and political awareness into real progress on the ground? And ultimately, what is needed to translate existing knowledge into success against rabies in a coun- try? This paper discusses aspects of the “science to policy gap,” (perceived) barriers to progress and possible solutions ( Table 1 ). It is structured according to the pillars of the Global framework for the elimination of dog-mediated human rabies ( Figure 1 ), namely, sociocultural, technical, organization, political, and resources, reflecting a coordinated approach. OvercOMiNG BArriers tO rABies eLiMiNAtiON Political or sociocultural—raising Public Awareness and Political Will Making the Burden Visible, Demonstrating Impact Prioritization of a disease is brought about through increasing public awareness and political will (19). One of the most important tABLe 1 | Key areas for improvement, necessary actions, and the stakeholders required to take action to support programmatic success for canine rabies elimination. Pillar Action By who Main target audiences/beneficiaries POteNtiAL BArrier: LAcK OF AWAreNess AND PriOritiZAtiON Political Demonstrate the burden and impact Epidemiologists, public health and veterinary services, program managers, international organizations a Government policy makers, global health funders Political Declare the disease notifiable Government lawmakers, World Health Organization (WHO), OIE Health and veterinary professionals Political Implement adequate surveillance in both humans and animals Policy makers, public health and veterinary authorities Local authorities, health and veterinary professionals Sociocultural Build awareness of the risks and prevention methods All stakeholders, but especially: health educators, media, program managers, international organizations a General public, particularly children Sociocultural Build community engagement and responsible dog ownership Policy makers, health communicators, communities, NGOs Communities/general public, dog owners POteNtiAL BArrier: LAcK OF NecessArY GUiDANce At reGiONAL AND NAtiONAL LeveL Organizational Plan effective interventions Program managers with support of international organizations a and experienced countries with successful programs as examples National implementation authorities Organizational Enable intersectoral collaboration at local and national levels All relevant government sectors, NGOs and private partners, international organizations a Program managers and health-care providers Organizational Regional collaboration Regional networks and (economic) associations, direct country partnerships, international organizations a Program managers POteNtiAL BArrier: cUMBersOMe MetHODOLOGies Technical Simplify rabies diagnosis for surveillance Researchers, test developers and producers National and regional laboratory and surveillance personnel Technical Simplify access to vaccine (Regional or national) responsibilities for procurement mechanisms, OIE and WHO vaccine banks Government policy makers, global health funders, Program managers Technical Simplify vaccine regimen and delivery Researchers, expert groups developing recommendations b and guidelines, logisticians Health authorities, community health providers Technical Improve effectiveness of vaccination strategies Program managers, epidemiologists/researchers Program implementers Technical Assess and implement control and management of dog movement Policy makers, veterinary authorities, researchers Local authorities, dog owners POteNtiAL BArrier: iNADeQUAte FUNDiNG Resources Ensure adequate resources for a program Governments and international and bilateral funding agencies [including (international) funding agencies, foundations, private donors/investors, etc.] Government and local policy makers, global health funders, program managers Resources Build necessary capacity and expertise for sustained control National capacity building agencies, international organizations a Government health departments, local authorities, medical and veterinary officers Resources Build a business plan for global rabies elimination WHO, OIE, FAO, GARC Government policy makers, (global) health funders, program managers a “International organizations” refers primarily to the FAO/OIE/WHO tripartite and global NGOs such as Global Alliance for Rabies Control (GARC). But these roles and principles are equally valid for other organizations working in rabies or zoonosis control. b A WHO Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization (SAGE) working group on rabies vaccines and rabies immunoglobulins was established in 2016 and is currently reviewing the scientific evidence and relevant programmatic considerations on the use and scheduling of these. The proposed recommendations resulting from this work will be considered by SAGE during its October 2017 meeting. 9 Fahrion et al. Road to Dog Rabies Elimination Frontiers in Public Health | www.frontiersin.org May 2017 | Volume 5 | Article 103 means of convincing policy makers to prioritize a disease and invest resources is to demonstrate its impact on public health and the economy and the potential benefit of targeting the disease. High-quality surveillance data are needed, but human rabies deaths are commonly underreported 100-fold (20–22), and the absence of data and solid evidence for estimates induces a cycle of neglect (23). Conversely, the onset of a control program that delivers better surveillance data is a precondition to increased awareness. Where quantitative assessments have been attempted, rabies has been ranked consistently among the top five zoonotic diseases, for example, in India (12), Mongolia (13), Jordan (24), Ethiopia (25), Myanmar (26), and Kenya (27). Declaring a disease notifiable is crucial to establish functional reporting (28), and monitoring and surveillance of the disease should, therefore, be a central element of every rabies program. Rabies is also included in the OIE list of notifiable diseases. 4 Dis- ease surveillance starts at the community level, where awareness about the disease needs to be complemented by clear guidance on reporting to the authorities, ideally integrated into the wider national health information and statistics systems. Pathways 4 http://www.oie.int/en/international-standard-setting/terrestrial-code/ access-online/. 10 Fahrion et al. Road to Dog Rabies Elimination Frontiers in Public Health | www.frontiersin.org May 2017 | Volume 5 | Article 103 must be included for transmission of data from the community level to the national level and to the OIE and WHO, resulting in feedback and action to keep individuals along the reporting chain informed and engaged. To ensure that data are comparable and informative, indicators should be well-defined and measurable. Novel technology such as notification via cell phones could be further explored (29). Creating Public Awareness Rabies burdens individuals, families, societies, and economies (6). As communities become aware of this threat, political pres- sure to act will accumulate. Building awareness and education about how to avoid and treat rabies exposures is, therefore, crucial in mobilizing a country to eliminate rabies. Champions at all levels (community to national) are central to this effort as they directly advocate and educate communities (7). World Rabies Day, recognized by the United Nations and commemorated every year on 28th September, celebrated its 10th anniversary in 2016 with 302 events in 57 countries (as of December 21, 2016). This annual awareness-raising event has shown a remarkable upwards trend since its inception and is an example of the dedication of innumerable people worldwide (30, 31). Building an Engaged Society An integral part of a regional or national plan is to build a proac- tive society that is fully engaged in the dog rabies elimination efforts of the country. Awareness of rabies at the community level alone is not enough to increase pressure on governments to improve their control efforts. Besides well-informed general public and responsible pet owners, committed, supportive policy makers are needed who will cohesively support national efforts to achieve and maintain freedom from rabies. Currently, most efforts to raise public awareness focus on promoting rabies information, which may not translate into the desired behavior, practices, and actions. Thus, it is important to invest in a national communication strategy and in impact monitoring that use the science of behavioral change and consider the diverse behavioral drivers, incentives, motivations, and larger sociocultural context of the target audience. An example of behavioral change necessary for rabies control is that owners accept responsibility for their dogs and any offspring they may produce. This includes protecting dogs from rabies through vaccination and from unwanted reproduction. The pro- motion of such responsible dog ownership can be achieved only through a combination of adequate legislation, public awareness, and education, recognizing cultural and economic conditions. Public health and veterinary authorities, animal welfare organiza- tions, and private veterinarians should work together to establish and maintain responsible dog ownership programs especially in communities at risk. Organizational—establishing Necessary Policies and Guidance Effective Planning of Elimination Programs National authorities are responsible for developing national strategies and implementing programs but they are frequently overwhelmed by multiple human and animal disease priorities and the challenges associated with programs stretched across sec- tors and administrative levels. It may be difficult to know where to start and what is needed—a potential barrier. Guidance for developing and monitoring control and elimination programs is, however, freely available. For example, the Stepwise Approach toward Rabies Elimination, which is embedded in the rabies blueprint, 5 follows the principles of enhancing intersectoral col- laboration. This guidance has been used by countries across three continents, mostly at national or regional stakeholder consulta- tions, to kick-start coordinated rabies control (32). Likewise, the rabies surveillance blueprint 6 provides guidance for planning of surveillance in particular. Knowledge about these tools needs to be disseminated and promoted more widely. Intersectoral Collaboration While the incremental benefits of a One Health approach for rabies control are established at the highest international level, its operationalization at national or local levels remains a chal- lenge. Administrative and management structures may need to be harmonized across sectors according to different ministries and budget lines and coordinated with stakeholders from the private sector (33). National stakeholder consultations that convene all actors across ministries, local and national levels as well as the private and public sectors, however, have proven excellent plat- forms from which to build connections and trust and from where operational barriers and constraints to effective collaboration in rabies prevention as well as possible solutions can be explored. The outcome of these consultations is the drafting of integrated, mul- tidisciplinary rabies action plans (34). For example, coordination at the national level can pave the way for integrated management of bite cases at the local level, jointly involving human and animal professionals to ensure reporting of bite and rabies incidents, proper risk assessments, and a coordinated response while at the same time sharing logistic resources (35, 36). Close involvement of social sciences, the education sector, and municipalities is now equally recognized, for example, as a powerful method for pre- venting dog bites in children, increasing knowledge and aware- ness about rabies, and in sustainably managing dog populations in affected communities (36). Sharing and Comparing: Transparency and R