The Urban Book Series Daniel Baldwin Hess Tiit Tammaru Editors Housing Estates in the Baltic Countries The Legacy of Central Planning in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania The Urban Book Series Editorial Board Fatemeh Farnaz Are fi an, Bartlett Development Planning Unit, University College London, London, UK Michael Batty, Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London, London, UK Simin Davoudi, Planning & Landscape Department GURU, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK Geoffrey DeVerteuil, School of Planning and Geography, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK Andrew Kirby, New College, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA Karl Kropf, Department of Planning, Headington Campus, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK Karen Lucas, Institute for Transport Studies, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK Marco Maretto, DICATeA, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Parma, Parma, Italy Fabian Neuhaus, Faculty of Environmental Design, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada Vitor Manuel Ar á ujo de Oliveira, Porto University, Porto, Portugal Christopher Silver, College of Design, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA Giuseppe Strappa, Facolt à di Architettura, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Roma, Italy Igor Vojnovic, Department of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA Jeremy W. 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More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14773 Daniel Baldwin Hess • Tiit Tammaru Editors Housing Estates in the Baltic Countries The Legacy of Central Planning in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania Editors Daniel Baldwin Hess Department of Urban and Regional Planning, School of Architecture and Planning University at Buffalo, State University of New York Buffalo, NY, USA Tiit Tammaru Department of Geography, Centre for Migration and Urban Studies University of Tartu Tartu, Estonia OTB - Research for the Built Environment Delft University of Technology Delft, The Netherlands ISSN 2365-757X ISSN 2365-7588 (electronic) The Urban Book Series ISBN 978-3-030-23391-4 ISBN 978-3-030-23392-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23392-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019. This book is an open access publication. 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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland We affectionately dedicate this book to the memory of Rein Ahas, our patient teacher, mentor, and friend. We also dedicate our work to those who designed, constructed, and have resided in housing estates in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. From them, we have learned much about communal living, urban progress and social change. Preface In this book, we further our scholarly engagement of housing and cityscapes by extending the research presented in our previous book, Housing Estates in Europe: Poverty, Ethnic Segregation, and Policy Changes (D. B. Hess, T. Tammaru, and M. van Ham, eds., Springer, 2018). The fortunes of modernist housing estates continue to be topical, and this new book therefore takes a more-in-depth look into the various challenges related to them. Our research would not have been possible without Daniel Hess ’ academic stays in Tartu, Estonia, funded fi rst by a Fulbright Scholar Award and second by a Marie Sk ł odowska-Curie international fellowship. With Estonia as our home base, we sought to consolidate and deepen our understanding of modernist housing estates based on events and examples in the Baltic countries. We began by staging two seminars (both titled Past, Present, and Future of Socialist Housing Estates: Exploring Research Needs in the Baltic States ) in October, 2016, fi rst in Vilnius, Lithuania (and held at the Lithuanian Social Research Centre, with organisation assistance from Donatas Burneika and Marija Dr ė mait ė ) followed by Riga, Latvia (and held at the Faculty of Architecture at Riga Technical University, with organisation assistance from Sandra Treija). The sem- inars provided opportunities for scholars to present up-to-date research related to housing estates and to engage with us in discussions about gaps in scholarly knowledge and research needs. We thus considered the advantages of a vertical scheme to research about housing estates, allowing a deep dive into housing estates in the Baltic countries [that differed from the horizontal research scheme in our fi rst book about housing estates, in which the geographic research was large (14 case studies, from Birmingham to Moscow and from Helsinki to Athens) but the scope was limited to poverty, ethnic segregation, policy, and attendant topics] and thus the concept for this Baltic-focused book was born. In the Baltic countries, we found an endlessly fascinating site for studying the triumphs and failures of housing estates. Centrally planned housing constitutes a signi fi cant segment of the housing stock in the Baltic countries (and a majority segment of the housing stock in larger Baltic cities). New housing opportunities introduced into the housing market — an important phenomenon in the economy of these post-socialist places — tend to emphasise the weaknesses and challenges of vii older housing, and this is a signi fi cant occurrence in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, as new housing is continuously added during the third decade of the post-transition era. It thus becomes more important to know how to maintain the status of housing estates in the Baltic countries and prevent their further deterioration (both physical and social). Through our work on this book, we therefore seized opportunities to assess the current status of housing estates (deeply informed by knowledge about their historical formation) and to measure changes since 1990 in their physical condition and social status. The chapters herein delve into in fl uencing forces for housing estates in the Baltic countries, and also explore how housing estates themselves in Estonia were in fl uencers (since their planning and design won important USSR awards). We especially wanted to characterise the trajectory of housing estates in various Baltic settings and in various conditions related to their establishment in the decades following World War II. Chapters in this book also explore particular characteristics of Baltic housing estates in signi fi cant detail, such as the (unful fi lled) promise in the original design of nearby and convenient service networks that supported the primary residential function of these modernist dis- tricts. This book thus offers a timely overview of the current status of large housing estates in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, their trajectories, and future outlook, which we have summarised in seven takeaway lessons. The book would not have been possible without contributions from author teams from throughout the Baltic countries (and stretching to Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, Scotland and the United States). We are indebted to Brendan Seney for his assistance in preparing the fi nal manuscript; for tireless English-language editing from Susan June; and assistance with the book manuscript from Alex Bitterman, Emily Moll, Kelley Mosher, Joshua Wilcox and Sydney Zuckerman. Our research approach was developed through extensive conversations with Kadri Leetmaa and Anneli K ä hrik. Our progress bene fi tted from presentations of work-in-progress by Daniel Hess at the Dorpater Dozentenabend Lecture Series at the University of Tartu (in Tartu, Estonia, December 2017). During the effort to produce this edited volume, Daniel Hess was Visiting Scholar and Director in the Centre for Migration and Urban Studies, University of Tartu. The research leading to this work has received funding from the European Union ’ s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under Marie Sk ł odowska-Curie grant agreement number 655601. Support also came from three grants from the Estonian Research Council: Institutional Research Grants IUT2-17 on Spatial Population Mobility and Geographical Changes in Urban Regions, PUT PRG306 Understanding the Vicious Circles of Segregation. A Geographic Perspective, Infotechnological Mobility Observatory, and RITA-R ä nne. The European Research Council funded this research under the European Union ’ s Seventh Framework Programme (FP/2007-2013)/ERC [Grant Agreement No. 615159] (ERC Consolidator Grant DEPRIVEDHOODS, Socio-spatial inequality, deprived viii Preface neighbourhoods, and neighbourhood effects). Delft University of Technology University supported this research through the Visiting Professors programme of the Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment. Buffalo, USA Daniel Baldwin Hess Tartu, Estonia Tiit Tammaru January 2019 Preface ix Contents Part I Introduction 1 Modernist Housing Estates in the Baltic Countries: Formation, Current Challenges and Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Daniel Baldwin Hess and Tiit Tammaru Part II Context and Vision 2 A Turbulent Political History and the Legacy of State Socialism in the Baltic Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Allan Puur, Martin Klesment and Luule Sakkeus 3 The Rise and Demise of the Soviet-Made Housing Shortage in the Baltic Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Michael Gentile 4 The Exceptional Design of Large Housing Estates in the Baltic Countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Marija Dr ė mait ė 5 Baltic Crossings: Soviet Housing Estates and Dreams of Forest-Suburbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 Laura Berger, Sampo Ruoppila and Kristo Vesikansa 6 Mass Housing and Extensive Urbanism in the Baltic Countries and Central/Eastern Europe: A Comparative Overview . . . . . . . . . 117 Miles Glendinning Part III Housing the Masses: Establishing Socialist-Modernist Housing Estates in the Baltic Countries 7 Architectural Transcendence in Soviet-Era Housing: Evidence from Socialist Residential Districts in Tallinn, Estonia . . . . . . . . . . 139 Daniel Baldwin Hess and Pille Metspalu xi 8 Socialist Ideals and Physical Reality: Large Housing Estates in Riga, Latvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Sandra Treija and U ģ is Bratu š kins 9 Living in a Large Housing Estate: Insider Perspectives from Lithuania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Vilt ė Janu š auskait ė Part IV Exploring the Socio-Demographic and Ethnic Characteristics of Previous and Current Housing Estate Dwellers 10 Socio-economic and Ethnic Trajectories of Housing Estates in Tallinn, Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Anneli K ä hrik, Karin Kangur and Kadri Leetmaa 11 Residential Change and Socio-demographic Challenges for Large Housing Estates in Riga, Latvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Zaiga Kri š j ā ne, M ā ris B ē rzi ņš , Guido Sechi and J ā nis Kr ū mi ņš 12 Soviet Housing Estates in Vilnius, Lithuania: Socio-ethnic Structure and Future(-Less?) Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Donatas Burneika, R ū ta Ubarevi č ien ė and Au š ra Baranuskait ė Part V Complexities of Built Environments in Housing Estates 13 Incomplete Service Networks in Enduring Socialist Housing Estates: Retrospective Evidence from Local Centres in Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Kadri Leetmaa and Daniel Baldwin Hess 14 Collectivist Ideals and Soviet Consumer Spaces: Mikrorayon Commercial Centres in Vilnius, Lithuania and Tallinn, Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Matas Š iup š inskas and Epp Lankots 15 Between Community and Private Ownership in Centrally Planned Residential Space: Governing Parking in Socialist Housing Estates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Tauri Tuvikene Part VI Imagining the Future Lives of Housing Estates 16 State-Subsidised Refurbishment of Socialist Apartment Buildings in Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Kalle Kuusk and Jarek Kurnitski xii Contents 17 Retro fi tting Soviet-Era Apartment Buildings with ‘ Smart City ’ Features: The H2020 SmartEnCity Project in Tartu, Estonia . . . . . 357 Rein Ahas, Veronika Mooses, Pilleriine Kamenjuk and Raimond Tamm Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Contents xiii Editors and Contributors About the Editors Daniel Baldwin Hess is Professor and Chairperson of the Department of Urban and Regional Planning in the School of Architecture and Planning at the University at Buffalo, State University of New York. He earned a doctoral degree in urban planning from the University of California, Los Angeles. While this book was in progress, he was Visiting Scholar and Director of the Centre for Migration and Urban Studies at the University of Tartu, Estonia, where he was a Marie Sk ł odowska-Curie International Fellow funded by the European Commission. His research addresses interactions between housing, transportation, land use and other public concerns, and he develops new pathways for understanding the complex socio-economic and ethnic landscape of cities and spatial inequalities. In his scholarship, he explores metropolitan form and urban planning practice and policy, sometimes interactively and sometimes sepa- rately, but always as a means to improve city functions and urban life. He is a former Fulbright Scholar at Tallinn University of Technology in Estonia, a National Endowment for the Humanities Fellow at Columbia University and winner of an Eisenhower Fellowship. He is co-editor of the journal Town Planning Review (Liverpool University Press) and co-editor of the book Housing Estates in Europe: Poverty, Ethnic Segregation, and Policy Challenges (Springer Publishing 2018). Tiit Tammaru is Professor of Urban and Population Geography at the Department of Geography, University of Tartu. He leads the development of longitudinal linked censuses and registers data for urban and population geographic studies in Estonia. He was trained in human geography and received a doctoral degree from the University of Tartu in 2001. Since then, he has worked as a Lecturer, Researcher, Senior Researcher and Professor at the Department of Geography, University of Tartu. He has also worked as a Guest Researcher at the Department of Geography, University of Utah, xv and Department of Geography, Ume å University. Currently, he is a Visiting Professor at the Neighbourhood Change and Housing research group at the Department OTB — Research for the Built Environment, Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Technology. He is co-editor of the book Housing Estates in Europe: Poverty, Ethnic Segregation, and Policy Challenges (Springer Publishing 2018). Contributors Rein Ahas Mobility Lab, Department of Geography, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia Au š ra Baranuskait ė Institute of Human Geography and Demography, Lithuanian Social Research Centre, Vilnius, Lithuania Laura Berger Department of Architecture, Aalto University, Helsinki, Finland M ā ris B ē rzi ņš Department of Human Geography, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia U ģ is Bratu š kins Faculty of Architecture, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia Donatas Burneika Institute of Human Geography and Demography, Lithuanian Social Research Centre, Vilnius, Lithuania Marija Dr ė mait ė Department of History, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania Michael Gentile Department of Sociology and Human Geography, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway Miles Glendinning Scottish Centre for Conservation Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland Daniel Baldwin Hess Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York, USA Vilt ė Janu š auskait ė Department of History, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania Anneli K ä hrik Centre for Migration and Urban Studies, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia Pilleriine Kamenjuk Mobility Lab, Department of Geography, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia Karin Kangur Centre for Migration and Urban Studies, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia xvi Editors and Contributors Martin Klesment School of Governance, Law and Society, Estonian Institute for Population Studies, Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia Zaiga Kri š j ā ne Department of Human Geography, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia J ā nis Kr ū mi ņš Department of Human Geography, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia Jarek Kurnitski Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Nearly Zero Energy Buildings Research Group, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia Kalle Kuusk Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Nearly Zero Energy Buildings Research Group, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia Epp Lankots Institute of Art History and Visual Culture, Estonian Academy of Arts, Tallinn, Estonia Kadri Leetmaa Centre for Migration and Urban Studies, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia Pille Metspalu Centre for Migration and Urban Studies, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia Veronika Mooses Mobility Lab, Department of Geography, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia Allan Puur School of Governance, Law and Society, Estonian Institute for Population Studies, Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia Sampo Ruoppila Department of Social Research, University of Turku, Turku, Finland Luule Sakkeus School of Governance, Law and Society, Estonian Institute for Population Studies, Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia Guido Sechi Department of Human Geography, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia Matas Š iup š inskas Department of History, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania Raimond Tamm Tartu City Government, Tartu, Estonia Tiit Tammaru Centre for Migration and Urban Studies, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia Sandra Treija Faculty of Architecture, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia Tauri Tuvikene Centre for Landscape and Culture, School of Humanities, Tallinn University, Tallinn, Estonia Editors and Contributors xvii R ū ta Ubarevi č ien ė Institute of Human Geography and Demography, Lithuanian Social Research Centre, Vilnius, Lithuania; Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Department of Urbanism, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands Kristo Vesikansa Department of Architecture, Aalto University, Helsinki, Finland xviii Editors and Contributors Part I Introduction Chapter 1 Modernist Housing Estates in the Baltic Countries: Formation, Current Challenges and Future Prospects Daniel Baldwin Hess and Tiit Tammaru Abstract This opening chapter of the book Housing Estates in the Baltic Countries: The Legacy of Central Planning in Estonia , Latvia and Lithuania presents seven important takeaway messages distilled from the chapters of this volume that, taken together, provide a comprehensive overview of the formation, current challenges and future prospects of large housing estates in the Baltic countries. Modernist housing built between the 1960s and the early 1990s forms a large share of the housing stock in the capital cities of the Baltic states. Their sheer size suggests that various methods of reconstruction, rather than downsizing or even demolition, would be among the ideal strategies for their future development. Today, reconstruction of these districts and housing contained therein is mainly the responsibility of private owners, since the public sector relinquished most of the housing sector in the early 1990s. Private apartment owners, organised into building-based fl at-owners ’ associations, often lack the ability to undertake com- prehensive renovation of apartment buildings and regeneration of surrounding neighbourhoods. For viable solutions to emerge, the public sector must again assume a prominent role. A comprehensive renovation strategy must be structured to include urban space even larger than individual apartments or apartment build- ings and encompass (a) improving the physical environment of the apartment buildings and neighbourhoods; (b) enhancing the social mobility and social inte- gration of the inhabitants (since many possess an ethnic minority background); and (c) facilitating integrated connectivity between housing estates and surrounding metropolitan space through transport, jobs, services and various other activities. Keywords Housing estates Baltic countries Central planning Retro fi tting Urban regeneration Sustainable city D. B. Hess ( & ) Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, New York, USA e-mail: dbhess@buffalo.edu T. Tammaru Centre for Migration and Urban Studies, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia e-mail: tiit.tammaru@ut.ee © The Author(s) 2019 D. B. Hess and T. Tammaru (eds.), Housing Estates in the Baltic Countries , The Urban Book Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23392-1_1 3 1.1 Introduction In the decades immediately following World War II, modernist apartment buildings within large housing estates were constructed in European cities to meet crushing housing demand. The construction of modernist housing estates was widespread in the centrally planned countries of Europe ruled by Communist parties, and the Baltic countries were no exception. Following World War II, housing estates began to shape the physical con fi guration of cities — especially their spatial layout and housing stocks — with profound effects that are still visible today (Hess et al. 2018a). Housing estates also maintained a place of prestige in Soviet cities until the collapse of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) (Hess et al. 2018a). Although nearly three decades have passed since the disintegration of the Soviet Union, Soviet-era housing still forms a signi fi cant share of the housing stock in major cities. The relative position of Soviet-era housing estates on the housing ladder has declined, while the position of central city neighbourhoods and suburbs has risen. In this book, we explore in signi fi cant detail the formation of Soviet-era housing estates and analyse their trajectories of change in order to better understand and to better address contemporary challenges. Today, many people perceive socialist housing estates as obsolete and socially stigmatised, and the initially envisioned lifespan of apartment buildings — approx- imately 30 years — has now been exceeded (Ahas et al. 2019). Since nearly all housing units and apartment buildings require renovation, one option would be to completely demolish mid-twentieth-century housing estates and construct replace- ment housing to satisfy today ’ s lifestyles and building standards, an approach announced in a large-scale khrushch ë vki demolition project in Moscow (Gunko et al. 2018). But since the number of people living in housing estates is large and since apartments in housing estates are privately owned, the cost to demolish and built replacement housing is three to four times higher than comprehensive reno- vation. Consequently, it is virtually impossible to demolish housing at such large scales (Ahas et al. 2019; Kuusk and Kurnitski 2019). In Tallinn, for example, such a demolition programme would affect nearly 60% of city dwellers. Various renova- tion options are thus a more realistic way forward, especially since the structural condition of the apartment buildings is generally satisfactory and renovation is needed mainly for other features of the apartment buildings, especially reducing energy consumption, regulating indoor climates, rehabilitating facades and rein- forcing balconies (Kuusk and Kurnitski 2019). Modernist housing estates have attractive features that may be improved further through various renovation strategies. For example, apartment buildings dating from the era of state socialism provide affordable housing and they are often located close to city centres and/or are well connected to city centres through public transport. Through renovation, their physical appearance can be signi fi cantly improved. People living in housing estates could bene fi t from investments in community social infrastructure, including schools. In order to achieve better out- comes, we emphasise that individual apartment-based and apartment 4 D. B. Hess and T. Tammaru building-based renovation (as is the norm today) should continue, and area- or neighbourhood-based renovation should be introduced to stabilise the development trajectory of neighbourhoods and reverse the downward spiral of neighbourhoods. For this to happen, the public sector must again assume a role, ideally helping to manage the complex socio-spatial structures that have evolved in the do-it-yourself urbanism framework prevalent since the 1990s which has produced both successes and eclectic outcomes (Kuusk and Kurnitski 2019). Instead of demolishing them, we can fi nally complete large housing estates (Tammis 2017) by enhancing various envisaged elements that were un fi nished under socialism — including mixed uses and activities, embedded services networks and employment opportunities con- tained within — to enhance the long-term potential of housing estates. This book draws together various perspectives that address the complexity of challenges that Soviet-era modernist housing estates face today in the Baltic countries. We begin by clarifying the motivations for establishing housing estates in the post-World War II era to seek a better understanding of the USSR housing system in which housing estates became a hallmark. We explore the social and ethnic landscapes and built environments of housing estates, and we consider various renovation strategies to prepare housing estates for their future lives in the context of a shift from a highly state-controlled and socialist housing system to a neo-liberal market-oriented system (Hess et al. 2018a). The Baltic countries — Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania — form a uni fi ed region in many respects, and the three nations were simultaneously occupied by the Soviet Union from World War II until 1991, when the USSR disintegrated (cf. Dr ė mait ė 2019). While recent books have provided a pan-European view of socio-spatial changes (Tammaru et al. 2016) and the role of large housing estates in such changes (Hess et al. 2018b), this book provides an in-depth exploration of large housing estates in the Baltic countries, focusing on their formation, trajectories of change and future prospects. We have distilled the following seven synthetic takeaway messages from the ensuing chapters in this book. Lesson 1: The formation of housing estates in Eastern Europe and Soviet Union, including the Baltic countries, was somewhat delayed compared to Western Europe. Housing estates nonetheless became key elements of the residential cityscape. Most Baltic cities were situated on relatively fl at land, and the addition of modernist residential towers added vertical planning to horizontal urban space, allowing cities to grow in a new dimension. Lesson 2: Although socialist societies were closed, ideas and knowledge about urban planning travelled across the Berlin Wall and through the Iron Curtain. Ideas that were critical to planning large housing estates in the Baltic countries were obtained from architects ’ study trips, most often to neighbouring Nordic countries. Two forces consequently combined in the Baltic countries in the decades following World War II: international modernism and Soviet socialism. Lesson 3: A shift from Garden City and City Beautiful inspirations in Stalinesque guise (through the 1950s until the mid-1960s) to a Concrete City orientation (from the mid-1960s through the 1980s) took place in the physical con fi guration of housing estates. This phenomenon can be attributed to an abrupt 1 Modernist Housing Estates in the Baltic Countries ... 5