Glioblastoma State of the Art and Future Perspectives Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in Cancers www.mdpi.com/journal/cancers Ghazaleh Tabatabai and Hiroaki Wakimoto Edited by Glioblastoma Glioblastoma State of the Art and Future Perspectives Special Issue Editors Ghazaleh Tabatabai Hiroaki Wakimoto MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade • Manchester • Tokyo • Cluj • Tianjin Special Issue Editors Ghazaleh Tabatabai University Hospital T ̈ ubingen, Eberhard Karls University T ̈ ubingen Germany Hiroaki Wakimoto Massachusetts General Hospital USA Editorial Office MDPI St. Alban-Anlage 66 4052 Basel, Switzerland This is a reprint of articles from the Special Issue published online in the open access journal Cancers (ISSN 2072-6694) (available at: https://www.mdpi.com/journal/cancers/special issues/ Glioblastoma SAFP). For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and as indicated below: LastName, A.A.; LastName, B.B.; LastName, C.C. Article Title. Journal Name Year , Article Number , Page Range. ISBN 978-3-03928-260-9 ( H bk) ISBN 978-3-03928-261-6 (PDF) c © 2020 by the authors. Articles in this book are Open Access and distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. The book as a whole is distributed by MDPI under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons license CC BY-NC-ND. Contents About the Special Issue Editors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Ghazaleh Tabatabai and Hiroaki Wakimoto Glioblastoma: State of the Art and Future Perspectives Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 1091, doi:10.3390/cancers11081091 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Eunice L. Lozada-Delgado, Nilmary Grafals-Ruiz, Miguel A. Miranda-Rom ́ an, Yasmarie Santana-Rivera, Fatma Valiyeva, M ́ onica Rivera-D ́ ıaz, Mar ́ ıa J. Marcos-Mart ́ ınez and Pablo E. Vivas-Mej ́ ıa Targeting MicroRNA-143 Leads to Inhibition of Glioblastoma Tumor Progression Reprinted from: Cancers 2018 , 10 , 382, doi:10.3390/cancers10100382 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Max H ̈ ubner, Christian Ludwig Hinske, David Effinger, Tingting Wu, Niklas Thon, Friedrich-Wilhelm Kreth and Simone Kreth Intronic miR-744 Inhibits Glioblastoma Migration by Functionally Antagonizing Its Host Gene MAP2K4 Reprinted from: Cancers 2018 , 10 , 400, doi:10.3390/cancers10110400 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Souheyla Bensalma, Soumaya Turpault, Annie-Claire Balandre, Madryssa De Boisvilliers, Afsaneh Gaillard, Corinne Chad ́ eneau and Jean-Marc Muller PKA at a Cross-Road of Signaling Pathways Involved in the Regulation of Glioblastoma Migration and Invasion by the Neuropeptides VIP and PACAP Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 123, doi:10.3390/cancers11010123 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Michal O. Nowicki, Josie L. Hayes, E. Antonio Chiocca and Sean E. Lawler Proteomic Analysis Implicates Vimentin in Glioblastoma Cell Migration Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 466, doi:10.3390/cancers11040466 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Davide Barbagallo, Angela Caponnetto, Duilia Brex, Federica Mirabella, Cristina Barbagallo, Giovanni Lauretta, Antonio Morrone, Francesco Certo, Giuseppe Broggi, Rosario Caltabiano and et al. CircSMARCA5 Regulates VEGFA mRNA Splicing and Angiogenesis in Glioblastoma Multiforme Through the Binding of SRSF1 Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 194, doi:10.3390/cancers11020194 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Heng-Wei Liu, Yu-Kai Su, Oluwaseun Adebayo Bamodu, Dueng-Yuan Hueng, Wei-Hwa Lee, Chun-Chih Huang, Li Deng, Michael Hsiao, Ming-Hsien Chien, Chi-Tai Yeh and Chien-Min Lin The Disruption of the β -Catenin/TCF-1/STAT3 Signaling Axis by 4-Acetylantroquinonol B Inhibits the Tumorigenesis and Cancer Stem-Cell-Like Properties of Glioblastoma Cells, In Vitro and In Vivo Reprinted from: Cancers 2018 , 10 , 491, doi:10.3390/cancers10120491 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Norihiko Saito, Nozomi Hirai, Kazuya Aoki, Ryo Suzuki, Satoshi Fujita, Haruo Nakayama, Morito Hayashi, Keisuke Ito, Takatoshi Sakurai and Satoshi Iwabuchi The Oncogene Addiction Switch from NOTCH to PI3K Requires Simultaneous Targeting of NOTCH and PI3K Pathway Inhibition in Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 121, doi:10.3390/cancers11010121 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 v Carolin Offenh ̈ auser, Fares Al-Ejeh, Simon Puttick, Kathleen S. Ensbey, Zara C. Bruce, Paul R. Jamieson, Fiona M. Smith, Brett W. Stringer, Benjamin Carrington, Adrian V. Fuchsand et al. EphA3 Pay-Loaded Antibody Therapeutics for the Treatment of Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2018 , 10 , 519, doi:10.3390/cancers10120519 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Giovanni Luca Gravina, Andrea Mancini, Alessandro Colapietro, Simona Delle Monache, Roberta Sferra, Flora Vitale, Loredana Cristiano, Stefano Martellucci, Francesco Marampon, Vincenzo Mattei and et al. The Small Molecule Ephrin Receptor Inhibitor, GLPG1790, Reduces Renewal Capabilities of Cancer Stem Cells, Showing Anti-Tumour Efficacy on Preclinical Glioblastoma Models Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 359, doi:10.3390/cancers11030359 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Sylvie Berthier, Louis Larrouqu` ere, Pierre Champelovier, Edwige Col, Christine Lefebvre, C ́ ecile Cottet-Rouselle, Josiane Arnaud, Catherine Garrel, Fran ̧ cois Laporte, Jean Boutonnat, Patrice Faure and Florence Hazane-Puch A New Patient-Derived Metastatic Glioblastoma Cell Line: Characterisation and Response to Sodium Selenite Anticancer Agent Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 12, doi:10.3390/cancers11010012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Margaux Colin, C ́ edric Delporte, Rekin’s Janky, Anne-Sophie Lechon, Gwendoline Renard, Pierre Van Antwerpen, William A. Maltese and V ́ eronique Mathieu Dysregulation of Macropinocytosis Processes in Glioblastomas May Be Exploited to Increase Intracellular Anti-Cancer Drug Levels: The Example of Temozolomide Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 411, doi:10.3390/cancers11030411 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Monserrat Llaguno-Munive, Mario Romero-Pi ̃ na, Janeth Serrano-Bello, Luis A. Medina, Norma Uribe-Uribe, Ana Maria Salazar, Mauricio Rodr ́ ıguez-Dorantes and Patricia Garcia-Lopez Mifepristone Overcomes Tumor Resistance to Temozolomide Associated with DNA Damage Repair and Apoptosis in an Orthotopic Model of Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 16, doi:10.3390/cancers11010016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Se ̧ ckin Akg ̈ ul, Ann-Marie Patch, Rochelle C.J. D’Souza, Pamela Mukhopadhyay, Katia Nones, Sarah Kempe, Stephen H. Kazakoff, Rosalind L. Jeffree, Brett W. Stringer, John V. Pearson, Nicola Waddell and Bryan W. Day Intratumoural Heterogeneity Underlies Distinct Therapy Responses and Treatment Resistance in Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 190, doi:10.3390/cancers11020190 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Adriana M ̈ uller-L ̈ angle, Henrik Lutz, Stephanie Hehlgans, Franz R ̈ odel, Kerstin Rau and Bodo Laube NMDA Receptor-Mediated Signaling Pathways Enhance Radiation Resistance, Survival and Migration in Glioblastoma Cells—A Potential Target for Adjuvant Radiotherapy Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 503, doi:10.3390/cancers11040503 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Jacqueline Kessler, Tim Hohmann, Antje G ̈ uttler, Marina Petrenko, Christian Ostheimer, Urszula Hohmann, Matthias Bache, Faramarz Dehghani and Dirk Vordermark Radiosensitization and a Less Aggressive Phenotype of Human Malignant Glioma Cells Expressing Isocitrate Dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) Mutant Protein: Dissecting the Mechanisms Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 889, doi:10.3390/cancers11060889 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 vi Sumedh S. Shah, Gregor A. Rodriguez, Alexis Musick, Winston M. Walters, Nicolas de Cordoba, Eric Barbarite, Megan M. Marlow, Brian Marples, Jeffrey S. Prince, Ricardo J. Komotar and et al. Targeting Glioblastoma Stem Cells with 2-Deoxy-D-Glucose (2-DG) Potentiates Radiation-Induced Unfolded Protein Response (UPR) Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 159, doi:10.3390/cancers11020159 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Benedikt Linder, Andrej Wehle, Stephanie Hehlgans, Florian Bonn, Ivan Dikic, Franz R ̈ odel, Volker Seifert and Donat K ̈ ogel Arsenic Trioxide and ( − )-Gossypol Synergistically Target Glioma Stem-Like Cells via Inhibition of Hedgehog and Notch Signaling Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 350, doi:10.3390/cancers11030350 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Lorenzo Sansalone, Eduardo A. Veliz, Nadia G. Myrthil, Vasileios Stathias, Winston Walters, Ingrid I. Torrens, Stephan C. Sch ̈ urer, Steven Vanni, Roger M. Leblanc and Regina M. Graham Novel Curcumin Inspired Bis-Chalcone Promotes Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Glioblastoma Neurosphere Cell Death Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 357, doi:10.3390/cancers11030357 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Angela Privat-Maldonado, Yury Gorbanev, Sylvia Dewilde, Evelien Smits and Annemie Bogaerts Reduction of Human Glioblastoma Spheroids Using Cold Atmospheric Plasma: The Combined Effect of Short- and Long-Lived Reactive Species Reprinted from: Cancers 2018 , 10 , 394, doi:10.3390/cancers10110394 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Yangjin Kim, Junho Lee, Donggu Lee and Hans G. Othmer Synergistic Effects of Bortezomib-OV Therapy and Anti-Invasive Strategies in Glioblastoma: A Mathematical Model Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 215, doi:10.3390/cancers11020215 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Sharon Berendsen, Wim G. M. Spliet, Marjolein Geurts, Wim Van Hecke, Tatjana Seute, Tom J. Snijders, Vincent Bours, Erica H. Bell, Arnab Chakravarti and Pierre A. Robe Epilepsy Associates with Decreased HIF-1 α /STAT5b Signaling in Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 41, doi:10.3390/cancers11010041 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 Josep Puig, Carles Biarn ́ es, Pepus Daunis-i-Estadella, Gerard Blasco, Alfredo Gimeno, Marco Essig, Carme Bala ̃ na, Angel Alberich-Bayarri, Ana Jimenez-Pastor, Eduardo Camacho and et al. Macrovascular Networks on Contrast-Enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging Improves Survival Prediction in Newly Diagnosed Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 84, doi:10.3390/cancers11010084 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Christine Jungk, Rolf Warta, Andreas Mock, Sara Friauf, Bettina Hug, David Capper, Amir Abdollahi, J ̈ urgen Debus, Martin Bendszus, Andreas von Deimling and et al. Location-Dependent Patient Outcome and Recurrence Patterns in IDH1-Wildtype Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 122, doi:10.3390/cancers11010122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Kelvin K. Wong, Robert Rostomily and Stephen T. C. Wong Prognostic Gene Discovery in Glioblastoma Patients using Deep Learning Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 53, doi:10.3390/cancers11010053 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 vii Taijun Hana, Shota Tanaka, Takahide Nejo, Satoshi Takahashi, Yosuke Kitagawa, Tsukasa Koike, Masashi Nomura, Shunsaku Takayanagi and Nobuhito Saito Mining-Guided Machine Learning Analyses Revealed the Latest Trends in Neuro-Oncology Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 178, doi:10.3390/cancers11020178 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Riccardo Bazzoni and Angela Bentivegna Role of Notch Signaling Pathway in Glioblastoma Pathogenesis Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 292, doi:10.3390/cancers11030292 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467 Christine Altmann, Stefanie Keller and Mirko H. H. Schmidt The Role of SVZ Stem Cells in Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 448, doi:10.3390/cancers11040448 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Davide Schiffer, Laura Annovazzi, Cristina Casalone, Cristiano Corona and Marta Mellai Glioblastoma: Microenvironment and Niche Concept Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 5, doi:10.3390/cancers11010005 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 Frank A. Giordano, Barbara Link, Martin Glas, Ulrich Herrlinger, Frederik Wenz, Viktor Umansky, J. Martin Brown and Carsten Herskind Targeting the Post-Irradiation Tumor Microenvironment in Glioblastoma via Inhibition of CXCL12 Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 272, doi:10.3390/cancers11030272 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Barbara Colella, Fiorella Faienza and Sabrina Di Bartolomeo EMT Regulation by Autophagy: A New Perspective in Glioblastoma Biology Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 312, doi:10.3390/cancers11030312 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Jonathan M. Fahey and Albert W. Girotti Nitric Oxide Antagonism to Anti-Glioblastoma Photodynamic Therapy: Mitigation by Inhibitors of Nitric Oxide Generation Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 231, doi:10.3390/cancers11020231 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 Arata Tomiyama, Tatsuya Kobayashi, Kentaro Mori and Koichi Ichimura Protein Phosphatases—A Touchy Enemy in the Battle Against Glioblastomas: A Review Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 241, doi:10.3390/cancers11020241 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 Claudia Del Vecchio, Arianna Calistri, Cristina Parolin and Carla Mucignat-Caretta Lentiviral Vectors as Tools for the Study and Treatment of Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 417, doi:10.3390/cancers11030417 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Fahim Ahmad, Qian Sun, Deven Patel and Jayne M. Stommel Cholesterol Metabolism: A Potential Therapeutic Target in Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 146, doi:10.3390/cancers11020146 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635 Sascha Marx, Yong Xiao, Marcel Baschin, Maximilian Splittst ̈ ohser, Robert Altmann, Eileen Moritz, Gabriele Jedlitschky, Sandra Bien-M ̈ oller, Henry W.S. Schroeder and Bernhard H. Rauch The Role of Platelets in Cancer Pathophysiology: Focus on Malignant Glioma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 569, doi:10.3390/cancers11040569 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 Miika Martikainen and Magnus Essand Virus-Based Immunotherapy of Glioblastoma Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 186, doi:10.3390/cancers11020186 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 viii Aleksei A. Stepanenko and Vladimir P. Chekhonin Recent Advances in Oncolytic Virotherapy and Immunotherapy for Glioblastoma: A Glimmer of Hope in the Search for an Effective Therapy? Reprinted from: Cancers 2018 , 10 , 492, doi:10.3390/cancers10120492 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679 Giuseppe Minniti, Giuseppe Lombardi and Sergio Paolini Glioblastoma in Elderly Patients: Current Management and Future Perspectives Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 336, doi:10.3390/cancers11030336 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703 Massimo Costanza and Gaetano Finocchiaro Allergic Signs in Glioma Pathology: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 404, doi:10.3390/cancers11030404 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 Philipp Lohmann, Jan-Michael Werner, N. Jon Shah, Gereon R. Fink, Karl-Josef Langen and Norbert Galldiks Combined Amino Acid Positron Emission Tomography and Advanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Glioma Patients Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 153, doi:10.3390/cancers11020153 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729 Denise Fabian, Maria del Pilar Guillermo Prieto Eibl, Iyad Alnahhas, Nikhil Sebastian, Pierre Giglio, Vinay Puduvalli, Javier Gonzalez and Joshua D. Palmer Treatment of Glioblastoma (GBM) with the Addition of Tumor-Treating Fields (TTF): A Review Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 174, doi:10.3390/cancers11020174 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743 Ya Gao, Wies R. Vallentgoed and Pim J. French Finding the Right Way to Target EGFR in Glioblastomas; Lessons from Lung Adenocarcinomas Reprinted from: Cancers 2018 , 10 , 489, doi:10.3390/cancers10120489 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755 Ola Rominiyi, Yahia Al-Tamimi and Spencer J. Collis The ‘Ins and Outs’ of Early Preclinical Models for Brain Tumor Research: Are They Valuable and Have We Been Doing It Wrong? Reprinted from: Cancers 2019 , 11 , 426, doi:10.3390/cancers11030426 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 ix About the Special Issue Editors Ghazaleh Tabatabai , Neurologist and full Professor of Neuro-Oncology, University Hospital T ̈ ubingen and Eberahrd Karls University of T ̈ ubingen, Germany. Prof. Tabatabai‘s research interest is focussed on central nervous system tumors, molecular mechanisms of acquired resistance to therapy, modifications of the tumor-associated microenvironment by cell-based therapies, innovative early phase clinical trials. Hiroaki Wakimoto , Associate professor of Neurosurgery at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Wakimoto’s research interest is in developing novel biological and targeted treatment strategies for central nervous system malignancies using clinically relevant disease models. xi cancers Editorial Glioblastoma: State of the Art and Future Perspectives Ghazaleh Tabatabai 1, * and Hiroaki Wakimoto 2, * 1 Interdisciplinary Division of Neuro-Oncology, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, Center for Neuro-Oncology, Comprehensive Cancer Center Tübingen Stuttgart, University Hospital Tübingen, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, 72076 Tübingen, Germany 2 Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School Boston, Boston, MA 02114, USA * Correspondence: ghazaleh.tabatabai@uni-tuebingen.de (G.T.); HWAKIMOTO@mgh.harvard.edu (H.W.) Received: 29 July 2019; Accepted: 30 July 2019; Published: 31 July 2019 This special issue is dedicated to glioblastoma and elucidates this disease from di ff erent perspectives. Despite multimodal therapies, the prognosis is still dismal. Many features contribute to this therapeutic challenge including high intratumoral and intertumoral heterogeneity, resistance to therapy, migration and invasion, and immunosuppression. With the advent of novel high throughput technologies, significant progress has been made to understand molecular and immunological signatures underlying the pathology of glioblastoma. This special issue aimed at updating researchers on current topics and progress made in basic, preclinical, and clinical glioblastoma research. The original articles in this special issue present novel findings on molecular mechanisms of radiosensitization, radioresistance and acquired resistance to therapy (Kessler et al., Müller-Längle et al. , Shah et al., Llaguno-Munive et al.) [ 1 – 4 ], cell migration (Nowicki et al., Hübner et al.) [ 5 , 6 ], intracellular drug levels (Colin et al.) [ 7 ], strategies targeting renewal capacities of cancer stem-like cells ( Gravina et al. , Sansalone et al., Linder et al.) [ 8 – 10 ], mathematic modeling of synergy, machine learning, deep learning (Kim et al., Hana et al., Wong et al.) [ 11 – 13 ], distinct signaling pathways (Barbagallo et al., Akgül et al., Bensalma et al., Saito et al., Liu et al.) [ 14 – 18 ], prognostic and predictive e ff ects of imaging patterns (Jungk et al., Puig et al.) [ 19 , 20 ], tumor-associated epilepsy ( Berendsen et al. ) [ 21 ], and novel models and experimental therapeutic approaches (Berthier et al., O ff enhäuser et al., Privat-Maldonado et al., Lozada-Delgado et al.) [22–25]. Moreover, review articles summarize the current state of knowledge in the fields of platelets (Marx et al.) [ 26 ], subventricular zone (Altmann et al.) [ 27 ] and microenvironment (Schi ff er et al.) [ 28 ], lentiviral vectors (Del Vecchio et al.) [ 29 ], allergic inflammation (Costanza and Finocchiaro) [ 30 ], elderly patients (Minniti et al.) [ 31 ], EMT and authophagy (Colella et al.) [ 32 ], notch signaling and CXCL12 signaling (Bazzoni et al., Giordano et al.) [ 33 , 34 ], protein phosphatases (Tomiyama et al.) [ 35 ], nitric oxide antagonism (Fahey and Girotti) [ 36 ], virus-based immunotherapy (Martikainen and Essand; Stepanenko et al.) [ 37 , 38 ], tumor-treating fields (Fabian et al.) [ 39 ], amino acid PET (Lohmann et al.) [ 40 ], cholesterol metabolism (Ahmad et al.) [ 41 ], preclinical modeling (Rominiyi et al.) [ 42 ], and EGFR as a therapeutic target (Gao et al.) [43]. It becomes clear that a holistic view from di ff erent angles is required to understand this complex disease and discover novel therapeutic targets and biomarkers. We are grateful for all the work the authors have included in this special issue. Finally, we would like to emphasize the most important perspective, i.e., our patients’ perspectives. From their point of view, the main readout for success in patient-centered research is prolonged survival with maintained quality of life. A culture of continued collaboration between disciplines and research teams will be necessary to meet this challenge. Cancers 2019 , 11 , 1091; doi:10.3390 / cancers11081091 www.mdpi.com / journal / cancers 1 Cancers 2019 , 11 , 1091 Conflicts of Interest: Ghazaleh Tabatabai: Personal fees for lectures and advisory board participation from Bristol-Myers-Squibb, AbbVie, Novocure, Medac. Research and travel grants from Bristol-Myers-Squibb, Novocure, Roche Diagnostics, Medac. Member of steering committees of the non-interventional studies TIGER (Novocure) and ONTRk (Bayer). Hiroaki Wakimoto declares no conflict of interest. References 1. Kessler, J.; Hohmann, T.; Güttler, A.; Petrenko, M.; Ostheimer, C.; Hohmann, U.; Bache, M.; Dehghani, F.; Vordermark, D. Radiosensitization and a Less Aggressive Phenotype of Human Malignant Glioma Cells Expressing Isocitrate Dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) Mutant Protein: Dissecting the Mechanisms. Cancers 2019 , 11 , 889. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 2. Müller-Längle, A.; Lutz, H.; Hehlgans, S.; Rödel, F.; Rau, K.; Laube, B. NMDA Receptor-Mediated Signaling Pathways Enhance Radiation Resistance, Survival and Migration in Glioblastoma Cells—A Potential Target for Adjuvant Radiotherapy. Cancers 2019 , 11 , 503. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 3. Shah, S.; Rodriguez, G.; Musick, A.; Walters, W.; de Cordoba, N.; Barbarite, E.; Marlow, M.; Marples, B.; Prince, J.; Komotar, R.; et al. Targeting Glioblastoma Stem Cells with 2-Deoxy-D-Glucose (2-DG) Potentiates Radiation-Induced Unfolded Protein Response (UPR). Cancers 2019 , 11 , 159. [CrossRef] [PubMed] 4. Llaguno-Munive, M.; Romero-Piña, M.; Serrano-Bello, J.; Medina, L.; Uribe-Uribe, N.; Salazar, A.; Rodr í guez-Dorantes, M.; Garcia-Lopez, P. 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This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http: // creativecommons.org / licenses / by / 4.0 / ). 4 cancers Article Targeting MicroRNA-143 Leads to Inhibition of Glioblastoma Tumor Progression Eunice L. Lozada-Delgado 1,2,3 , Nilmary Grafals-Ruiz 3,4 , Miguel A. Miranda-Rom á n 1,3 , Yasmarie Santana-Rivera 1,3 , Fatma Valiyeva 3 , M ó nica Rivera-D í az 2,3 , Mar í a J. Marcos-Mart í nez 5,6 and Pablo E. Vivas-Mej í a 2,3, * 1 Department of Biology, Rio Piedras Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00931, USA; eunice.lozada@upr.edu (E.L.L.-D.); mirandar.miguel@gmail.com (M.A.M.-R.); yasmarie.santana@upr.edu (Y.S.-R.) 2 Department of Biochemistry, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA; mrivera@bromediconllc.com 3 Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00935, USA; nilmary.grafals1@upr.edu (N.G.-R.); fvaliyeva@cccupr.org (F.V.) 4 Department of Physiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA 5 Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA; maria.marcos@upr.edu 6 Anatomic Pathology Laboratory, Puerto Rico Medical Services Administration, San Juan, PR 00936, USA * Correspondence: pablo.vivas@upr.edu; Tel.: +1-787-772-8300 Received: 9 August 2018; Accepted: 8 October 2018; Published: 12 October 2018 Abstract: Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive of all brain tumors, with a median survival of only 14 months after initial diagnosis. Novel therapeutic approaches are an unmet need for GBM treatment. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. Several dysregulated miRNAs have been identified in all cancer types including GBM. In this study, we aimed to uncover the role of miR-143 in GBM cell lines, patient samples, and mouse models. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR of RNA extracted from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) samples showed that the relative expression of miR-143 was higher in GBM patients compared to control individuals. Transient transfection of GBM cells with a miR-143 oligonucleotide inhibitor (miR-143-inh) resulted in reduced cell proliferation, increased apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest. SLC30A8, a glucose metabolism-related protein, was identified as a direct target of miR-143 in GBM cells. Moreover, multiple injections of GBM tumor-bearing mice with a miR-143-inh-liposomal formulation significantly reduced tumor growth compared to control mice. The reduced in vitro cell growth and in vivo tumor growth following miRNA-143 inhibition suggests that miR-143 is a potential therapeutic target for GBM therapy. Keywords: glioblastoma; microRNAs; mouse model; cell proliferation 1. Introduction Glioblastoma (GBM), also known as glioblastoma multiforme, is the most common and lethal form of brain tumor [ 1 ]. Currently, there are no optimal treatments for this disease, which accounts for about 14,000 annual deaths in the U.S., having an incidence ratio of 2 to 3 out of 100,000 adults per year [ 2 ]. GBM, or WHO Grade IV astrocytoma, can either develop de novo (primary, 90% of cases) or derive from WHO grade II or grade III astrocytomas (secondary) [ 1 , 3 – 5 ]. GBM tumors are known to be fast growing in the cerebral white matter and patients typically remain asymptomatic until advanced stages of the disease [ 6 ]. The current therapeutic strategy for GBM involves tumor resection surgery followed by radiotherapy (XRT) and/or radiosurgery in combination with temozolomide (TMZ)-based Cancers 2018 , 10 , 382; doi:10.3390/cancers10100382 www.mdpi.com/journal/cancers 5 Cancers 2018 , 10 , 382 chemotherapy [ 1 , 7 ]. However, most GBM patients become resistant to a second round of TMZ treatment due to over-activation of the DNA repair enzyme O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) [ 2 , 8 ]. Despite the aggressive treatment, the prognosis of GBM patients remains poor, with survival rates of only 12–14 months after initial diagnosis. Therefore, novel and more effective therapies for GBM are urgently needed. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs of about 18–22 nucleotides in length that regulate gene expression post-transcriptionally by recognizing and binding preferably to the 3’-Untranslated Region (3’-UTR) of their target messenger RNAs (mRNAs) [ 9 ]. In addition, miRNAs binding to the 5’-UTR or coding regions have also been observed [ 9 – 11 ]. Evidence indicates that altered expression of miRNAs in GBM plays a central role in GBM initiation, progression, and tumor maintenance [ 12 – 14 ]. This has led to the proposal of several miRNAs as both diagnostic and prognostic markers, and as targets for GBM therapy [2]. MicroRNA-143 (miR-143) is part of a conserved miRNA cluster composed of miR-143/miR-145 on chromosome 5 (5q33) in humans [ 15 ]. MiR-143 has been shown to have a role in tumor progression, cancer cell growth, and invasiveness of cancer cells, including GBM cells [ 16 , 17 ]. As most miRNAs, miR-143 expression appears to be tissue-specific [ 17 , 18 ]. In normal tissues, miR-143 expression ranges from highest in the colon to lowest in the brain and liver [ 15 ]. Reports have shown that high levels of miR-143 sensitize cells to chemotherapeutic drugs including docetaxel in prostate cancer cells and TMZ in GBM cells [ 8 , 19 ]. However, others show an association between high levels of miR-143 with increased invasive potential of GBM cells compared with parental GBM cells, suggesting an oncogenic role [ 16 ]. Since the biological role of miR-143 in GBM is not well understood, in the present study we rigorously investigated the role of miR-143 in GBM cell lines, patient samples, and a subcutaneous GBM mouse model. 2. Results 2.1. Expression of MiR-143 in GBM Patients First, we assessed the miR-143 expression levels in FFPE samples of GBM patients [ 14 , 20 , 21 ]. MiR-143 expression levels were found to be significantly increased in GBM patients compared to controls (* p = 0.0208) (Figure 1). Figure 1. MiR-143 expression levels in GBM. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue blocks from 19 newly diagnosed Glioblastoma (GBM) patients (13 females, 6 males) and 5 control patients (2 females, 3 males) were used in this study. GBM patients showed higher miR-143 expression compared to control patient samples (* p < 0.05); dots represent the means of triplicates ± SD. 2.2. Effect of MiR-143 Targeting on GBM Cell Proliferation We measured miR-143 expression levels in a panel of three well-known GBM cell lines (U87-MG, T98G, A-172). MiR-143 was found to be expressed in higher levels in the U87-MG (U87) cell line, while the T98G cells expressed the lowest miR-143 levels (Figure 2A). Therefore, the U87 cell line was 6 Cancers 2018 , 10 , 382 used for miR-143 inhibition experiments, while the T98G cell line was chosen for ectopic miR-143 overexpression. To examine the effect of targeting miR-143 on cell proliferation, U87 cells were transiently transfected with 100 nM of oligonucleotide-inhibitors (miR-143-inh or NC-inh). Following this treatment, miR-143 levels were significantly reduced in U87 cells by ~90% (* p = 0.0211; Figure 2B). These cells showed a reduced ability to proliferate as shown by the 78% reduction in the number of colonies (* p = 0.0202) compared to the NC-inh transfected cells (Figure 2C). Transient transfection of A-172 cells with 100 nM of miR-143-inh produced similar cell growth inhibitory effects (Figure 2D). Taq-Man-based RT-PCR (qPCR) analysis with the total RNA extracted from stable transfected clones showed a 6.98-fold and 2.17-fold increase (compared with empty vector clones) in two of the miR-143 selected clones (Figure 2E). In a colony formation assay, the miR-143-overexpressed clone miR-143-1 grew significantly faster than cells expressing the empty vector clones (EV) (Figure 2F). Together, these results suggest that high miR-143 levels promote cell proliferation of GBM cells. Figure 2. Effect of miR-143 inhibition or overexpression on cell proliferation. Total RNA was isolated, and qPCR was performed. ( A ) Relat