‘ Transitions in Energy Efficiency and Demand provides an important contri- bution to the energy transition literature, correcting the usual bias towards energy supply. Drawing on case studies of innovation, it highlights demand- side innovations in system change; and by using sociotechnical approaches, the case studies avoid the trap of thinking of innovation simply in terms of technical fixes.’ Nick Eyre, Professor, University of Oxford, UK ‘ Transitions in Energy Efficiency and Demand is at the forefront of research on energy innovation and energy demand, providing new and in-depth insights into both technological and social change across a range of domains. Essential reading for scholars, policy makers, business leaders, stu- dents, and anyone else interested in a low-carbon, energy-efficient and low- demand energy transition.’ Marilyn Brown, Professor, Georgia Tech, USA Transitions in Energy Efficiency and Demand Meeting the goals enshrined in the Paris Agreement and limiting global temper- ature increases to less than 2°C above pre-industrial levels demands rapid reduc- tions in global carbon dioxide emissions. Reducing energy demand has a central role in achieving this goal, but existing policy initiatives have been largely incremental in terms of the technological and behavioural changes they encour- age. Against this background, this book develops a sociotechnical approach to the challenge of reducing energy demand and illustrates this with a number of empirical case studies from the United Kingdom. In doing so, it explores the emergence, diffusion and impact of low-energy innovations, including electric vehicles and smart meters. The book has the dual aim of improving the aca- demic understanding of sociotechnical transitions and energy demand and pro- viding practical recommendations for public policy. Combining an impressive range of contributions from key thinkers in the field, this book will be of great interest to energy students, scholars and decision- makers. Kirsten E.H. Jenkins is a Lecturer in Human Geography and Sustainable Development within the School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, UK. Debbie Hopkins is jointly appointed by the Transport Studies Unit and the School of Geography and the Environment at the University of Oxford (UK) as a Departmental Research Lecturer. Routledge Studies in Energy Transitions Considerable interest exists today in energy transitions. Whether one looks at diverse efforts to decarbonize, or strategies to improve the access levels, security and innovation in energy systems, one finds that change in energy systems is a prime priority. Routledge Studies in Energy Transitions aims to advance the thinking which underlies these efforts. The series connects distinct lines of inquiry from plan- ning and policy, engineering and the natural sciences, history of technology, STS, and management. In doing so, it provides primary references that function like a set of international, technical meetings. Single and co-authored mono- graphs are welcome, as well as edited volumes relating to themes, like resilience and system risk. Series Editor: Dr. Kathleen Araújo, Boise State University and Energy Policy Institute, Center for Advanced Energy Studies (US) Series Advisory Board Morgan Bazilian, Colorado School of Mines (US) Thomas Birkland, North Carolina State University (US) Aleh Cherp, Central European University (CEU, Budapest) and Lund Univer- sity (Sweden) Mohamed El-Ashry, UN Foundation Jose Goldemberg, Universidade de Sao Paolo (Brasil) and UN Development Program, World Energy Assessment Michael Howlett, Simon Fraser University (Canada) Jon Ingimarsson, Landsvirkjun, National Power Company (Iceland) Michael Jefferson, ESCP Europe Business School Jessica Jewell, IIASA (Austria) Florian Kern, Institut für Ökologische Wirtschaftsforschung (Germany) Derk Loorbach, DRIFT (Netherlands) Jochen Markard, ETH (Switzerland) Nabojsa Nakicenovic, IIASA (Austria) Martin Pasqualetti, Arizona State University, School of Geographical Sciences and Urban Planning (US) Mark Radka, UN Environment Programme, Energy, Climate, and Technology Rob Raven, Utrecht University (Netherlands) Roberto Schaeffer, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Energy Planning Program, COPPE (Brasil) Miranda Schreurs, Technische Universität M ū nchen, Bavarian School of Public Policy (Germany) Vaclav Smil, University of Manitoba and Royal Society of Canada (Canada) Benjamin Sovacool, Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU), University of Sussex (UK) How Power Shapes Energy Transitions in Southeast Asia A Complex Governance Challenge Jens Marquardt Energy and Economic Growth Why We Need a New Pathway to Prosperity Timothy J Foxon Accelerating Sustainable Energy Transition(s) in Developing Countries The Challenges of Climate Change and Sustainable Development Laurence L. Delina Petroleum Industry Transformations Lessons from Norway and Beyond Edited by Taran Thune, Ole Andreas Engen and Olav Wicken Sustainable Energy Transformations, Power and Politics Morocco and the Mediterranean Sharlissa Moore Energy as a Sociotechnical Problem An Interdisciplinary Perspective on Control, Change, and Action in Energy Transitions Edited by Christian Büscher, Jens Schippl and Patrick Sumpf Transitions in Energy Efficiency and Demand The Emergence, Diffusion and Impact of Low-Carbon Innovation Edited by Kirsten E.H. Jenkins and Debbie Hopkins For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ Routledge- Studies-in- Energy-Transitions/book-series/RSENT Transitions in Energy Efficiency and Demand The Emergence, Diffusion and Impact of Low-Carbon Innovation Edited by Kirsten E.H. Jenkins and Debbie Hopkins First published 2019 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 selection and editorial matter, Kirsten E.H. Jenkins and Debbie Hopkins; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Kirsten E.H. Jenkins and Debbie Hopkins to be identified as the authors of the editorial matter, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. The Open Access version of this book, available at www.taylorfrancis. com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution- Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license. Trademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record has been requested for this book ISBN: 978-0-8153-5678-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-351-12726-4 (ebk) Typeset in Goudy by Wearset Ltd, Boldon, Tyne and Wear Contents List of figures xii List of tables xiii Notes on contributors xiv Preface xix 1 Introduction: new directions in energy demand research 1 K I R S T E N E . H . J E N K I N S , S T E V E S O R R E L L , D E B B I E H O P K I N S A N D C A M E R O N R O B E R T S PART I Analytical perspectives 13 2 Of emergence, diffusion and impact: a sociotechnical perspective on researching energy demand 15 F R A N K W . G E E L S , B E N J A M I N K . S O V A C O O L A N D S T E V E S O R R E L L 3 A normative approach to transitions in energy demand: an energy justice and fuel poverty case study 34 K I R S T E N E . H . J E N K I N S A N D M A R I M A R T I S K A I N E N PART II The emergence and diffusion of innovations 51 4 Electric vehicles and the future of personal mobility in the United Kingdom 53 N O A M B E R G M A N 5 Experimentation with vehicle automation 72 D E B B I E H O P K I N S A N D T I M S C H W A N E N x Contents 6 The United Kingdom smart meter rollout through an energy justice lens 94 K I R S T E N E . H . J E N K I N S , B E N J A M I N K . S O V A C O O L A N D S A B I N E H I E L S C H E R 7 Overcoming the systemic challenges of retrofitting residential buildings in the United Kingdom: a Herculean task? 110 D O N A L B R O W N , P A U L A K I V I M A A , J A N R O S E N O W A N D M A R I M A R T I S K A I N E N PART III Societal impacts and co-benefits 131 8 Exergy economics: new insights into energy consumption and economic growth 133 P A U L B R O C K W A Y , S T E V E S O R R E L L , T I M F O X O N A N D J A C K M I L L E R 9 Energy- saving innovations and economy-wide rebound effects 156 G I O E L E F I G U S , K A R E N T U R N E R A N D A N T O N I O S K A T R I S PART IV Policy mixes and implications 175 10 Political acceleration of sociotechnical transitions: lessons from four historical case studies 177 C A M E R O N R O B E R T S A N D F R A N K W . G E E L S 11 The challenge of effective energy efficiency policy in the United Kingdom 195 J A N E T T E W E B B 12 Policy mixes for sustainable energy transitions: the case of energy efficiency 215 F L O R I A N K E R N , P A U L A K I V I M A A , K A R O L I N E R O G G E A N D J A N R O S E N O W 13 Managing energy and climate transitions in theory and practice: a critical systematic review of Strategic Niche Management 235 K I R S T E N E . H . J E N K I N S A N D B E N J A M I N K . S O V A C O O L Contents xi PART V Conclusion 259 14 Conclusion: towards systematic reductions in energy demand 261 K I R S T E N E . H . J E N K I N S , D E B B I E H O P K I N S A N D C A M E R O N R O B E R T S Index 274 Figures 2.1 Multi- level perspective on transitions – illustrating the emergence, diffusion and impact of radical innovations as three consecutive circles 19 4.1 Timeline of the central vision 61 5.1 Local projects and emerging technical trajectories 75 6.1 Key components of the smart meter communication service and service providers 95 7.1 Key systemic challenges for driving retrofit uptake 115 7.2 The incumbent ‘atomised market model’ for residential retrofit 116 7.3 The Energiesprong Managed Energy Services Agreement (MESA) 117 8.1 Normalised time series of inputs and outputs to production in Portugal 140 8.2 Trends in primary to useful exergy efficiency in the UK, US and China (1971–2010) 143 8.3 Normalised trends in primary exergy, useful exergy and primary to useful exergy efficiency in China between 1971 and 2010 144 8.4 Primary exergy (top) and useful exergy (bottom) intensity of Portugal, UK, US, Austria and Japan, 1850–2010 145 8.5 Final exergy (top) and useful exergy (bottom) intensities in the EU- 15, 1960 to 2010 146 8.6 Counterfactual simulations of UK economic output 1971–2013 using the MARCO-UK model 150 10.1 The positioning of the four case studies 178 13.1 Strategic Niche Management author demographics (n = 100) 243 13.2 Strategic Niche Management article methods (n = 45) 244 13.3 Distribution of Strategic Niche Management cases by technology (n = 24) 247 Tables 2.1 Key research debates with regard to sociotechnical transitions and low- energy innovation 29 4.1 Final sample of documents with visions of future transport in the UK including EVs 59 5.1 Examples of connected and autonomous vehicle (CAV) activities in Oxford and Greenwich 84 6.1 Sixty- seven anticipated short- and long-term benefits to smart meters in the UK 97 6.2 Estimated benefits to the smart meter implementation programme in the UK 99 7.1 Policy mix for achieving widespread comprehensive residential retrofit in the UK 123 8.1 Breakdown of end-uses, by useful exergy category and energy carrier group 141 8.2 Decomposing the drivers of useful exergy consumption in the UK, US and China over the period 1971–2010 143 9.1 Percentage change in key macroeconomic variables, relative to the baseline scenario, following a costless 10 per cent increase in household residential energy efficiency 160 9.2 Percentage change in key macroeconomic variables following a 5 per cent increase in Scottish household energy efficiency under alternative fiscal regimes 163 9.3 Changes in CO 2 emissions associated with a decreased spending in UK households use of UK EGWS outputs following a 10 per cent energy efficiency improvement 167 12.1 Relationship between policy development processes and the expected coherence and consistency of a policy mix 219 12.2 Overview of policy process theories and their application in transition studies 226 13.1 Strategic Niche Management guidelines and potential dilemmas 237 13.2 Content analysis coding framework 239 13.3 Indicative policy recommendations by analytical category 251 14.1 Six sociotechnical research debates and areas for future study 271 Contributors Editors Debbie Hopkins is Departmental Research Lecturer at the Transport Studies Unit and the School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford. She also holds a Junior Research Fellowship at Mansfield College, Oxford, and is a research affiliate of the Centre for Sustainability, University of Otago, New Zealand. In 2016, she co-edited Low Carbon Mobility Trans- itions , which built upon her research interests across climate change, low- carbon futures and sociotechnical transitions. At Oxford, she leads research into expectations of automation in freight, everyday experiences of UK truckers, and novel methodologies for researching mobile work. Kirsten E.H. Jenkins is an early career Lecturer in Human Geography and Sus- tainable Development within the School of Environment and Technology (SET) at the University of Brighton. Prior to this, she was a Research Fellow in Energy Justice and Transitions within the Centre on Innovation and Energy Demand (CIED). Her background is as a sustainable development and human geography scholar with research interests that centre on energy justice, energy policy, and sustainable energy provision and use. She has pub- lished widely, serves as Managing Editor of Energy Research & Social Science and Associate Fellow of the Durham Energy Institute, and has worked on projects funded by the RCUK Energy Programme and ESRC. Contributors Noam Bergman is Researcher at the Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU), University of Sussex, UK. He has researched transitions to sustainability from a variety of perspectives, including low-carbon technologies such as microgeneration and electric vehicles, reorienting finance towards low- carbon development, and social innovations for sustainability, ranging from local networks to environmental activism. Prior to CIED his work includes involvement in the EU Project MATISSE on integrated sustainability assess- ment and a SuperGen consortium project on microgeneration, as well as a solo EDF- funded project on Sustainable Behaviour and Technology. Contributors xv Paul Brockway is Senior Research Fellow at the School or Earth & Environment, University of Leeds, UK. His research addresses on an urgent global question: can we decouple energy use from economic growth to meet both climate and economic goals? He focuses on studying the interaction between energy use and society at the useful stage of the energy provision chain using exergy-based ana- lysis, where exergy is ‘available energy’. This emerging field is producing new insights into the significant role of energy in economic growth, and in turn the decoupling problem. He co-leads the international Exergy Economics research network (https://exergyeconomics.wordpress.com). Donal Brown is Research Associate at CIED based at the SPRU at the Univer- sity of Sussex and is also Sustainability Director at the Sustainable Design Collective. He holds a First-class BSc in Environmental Science and distinc- tion in Climate Change and Policy MSc and is currently completing a PhD in domestic retrofit. He has worked for over ten years in all aspects of the construction industry. A sustainable energy and energy demand specialist in low- carbon housing, he researches and provides consultancy on energy effi- ciency, renewable energy and sustainable building solutions. Gioele Figus is Research Associate in economics, working jointly between the Centre for Energy Policy and the Fraser of Allander Institute at the Univer- sity of Strathclyde. He has expertise in modelling the impact of energy and environmental policy in the wide economy, through the development and use of large-scale economic models. He collaborates with the Scottish Gov- ernment’s centre of expertise on climate change where he is currently look- ing at integrating different large-scale modelling techniques for the analysis of energy efficiency and climate change actions. He has collaborated to different research projects funded by EPSRC, ESRC and UKERC. Tim Foxon is Professor of Sustainability Transitions at SPRU, University of Sussex. His research explores the technological and social factors relating to the innovation of new energy technologies, the co-evolution of technologies and institutions for a transition to a sustainable low-carbon economy, and relations and interdependencies between energy use and economic growth. He is a member of the UK Energy Research Centre, the ESRC Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy, CIED, and the new Centre for Research on Energy Demand Solutions. His has published 2 books, 60 aca- demic articles, 15 book chapters and over 20 research reports. His book on the role of energy in past surges of economic development, and the implica- tions for a low- carbon transition was published in October 2017. Frank W. Geels is Professor of System Innovation and Sustainability at the University of Manchester. He is chairman of the international Sustainability Transitions Research Network (www.transitionsnetwork.org), and one of the world- leading scholars on sociotechnical transitions. Working in the field of innovation studies, he aims to understand the sociotechnical dynamics of sustainability transitions, analysing how firms, policymakers, consumers, xvi Contributors public opinion and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) shape the emergence and diffusion of innovations. He has analysed sustainability trans- itions in electricity, transport and agro-food, and has published 5 books and 65 peer-reviewed articles. He was selected in the Thomson Reuters list of ‘Highly Cited Researchers’, identified as one of The World’s Most Influential Scientific Minds 2014 Sabine Hielscher is Research Fellow at the SPRU, University of Sussex and at Zentrum Technik und Gesellschaft (ZTG), Technische Universität Berlin. She is interested in the politics, processes and materialisations of civil society activ- ities and the dynamics of everyday (sustainable) consumption patterns. Her recent work examines the expectations and visions behind large-scale ‘smart’ sociotechnical futures. Over the years, she has collaborated with a variety of civil society, public and business organisations, taking an interdisciplinary approach. She has worked on research projects funded by the AHRC, EPSRC, RCUK Energy Programme, European Commission and BMBF. Antonios Katris is Research Associate at the Centre for Energy Policy, Univer- sity of Strathclyde, UK. He was worked on the potential multiple benefits of energy efficiency at both the Scottish and UK level using economy-wide modelling. He also has some experience on the input–output analysis of international supply chains, primarily to identify points of significant carbon emissions and on topics of wider economic interest such as embodied labour cost. He has been involved as researchers on projects funded by EPSRC and ESRC. Florian Kern is Head of the research field Ecological Economics and Environ- mental Policy at the Institute for Ecological Economy Research (IÖW) in Berlin, Germany, where he also leads on the cross-cutting themes ‘Techno- logy and Innovation’ and ‘Environmental Policy and Governance’. His research focuses on the governance of sociotechnical transitions towards sustainability. He is an associate editor of Research Policy and a member of the steering group of the Sustainability Transitions Research Network. Until May 2018 he was a Senior Lecturer at SPRU and Co-Director of the Sussex Energy Group and led a cross-cutting project on policy mixes as part of CIED. Paula Kivimaa is Senior Research Fellow at the SPRU, University of Sussex and Senior Researcher in the Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), Fin- land. She is an expert in sustainability transition and innovation studies, with a focus on the interface between policy and innovation and policy coordination. Her current research focuses on intermediaries, experiments and policy mixes in low-energy transitions. Mari Martiskainen is Research Fellow at Sussex Energy Group, SPRU, University of Sussex. Her research centres around the transition to a fairer, cleaner and more sustainable energy world. She has worked with a range of conceptual Contributors xvii approaches, including sustainability transitions, innovation intermediation, user innovation, power and politics. She has authored several articles in jour- nals such as Energy Research & Social Science , Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions , Environment and Planning A and Research Policy . She has written book chapters, conference proceedings and invited blog posts, and presents her research regularly to a range of audiences. In 2018, she was selected as a member of the Mayor of London Fuel Poverty Partnership. Jack Miller was a postgraduate student with CIED between 2014 and 2017, conducting research into energy–economy interactions using the thermody- namic principles of exergy. He is now a researcher and adviser at the Parlia- mentary Office of Science & Technology, where he provides analysis of research evidence to UK parliamentarians. He has a background in energy policy and physics. Cameron Roberts , University of Leeds, is Research Fellow studying the polit- ical economy of transport provision. His research background includes the history of science and technology, science and technology studies, and trans- itions theory. He has published on the role of politics and public story-lines in sociotechnical transitions, and on the deliberate acceleration of trans- itions to sustainability. Karoline Rogge is Senior Lecturer in Sustainability Innovation and Policy at the SPRU and Co- Director of the Sussex Energy Group at the University of Sussex. In addition, she is Senior Researcher at the Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research (Fraunhofer ISI) in Karlsruhe, Germany. Her interdisciplinary research combines insights from innovation studies, environmental economics and political science to investigate the link between policy mixes and innovation, with a focus on low-carbon energy transitions. She received her PhD from ETH Zurich, Switzerland, with an empirical analysis of the innovation impact of the EU Emissions Trading System. Jan Rosenow is Director of European Programmes at the Regulatory Assistance Project (RAP), a global team of highly-skilled energy experts. He is respons- ible for all aspects of leadership, management, and financial viability of RAP’s work in Europe. He is also an Honorary Research Associate at Oxford University’s Environmental Change Institute, an Associate Fellow at Sussex Energy Group of SPRU, University of Sussex and at the Free University of Berlin. Tim Schwanen is Associate Professor of Transport Studies and Director of the Transport Studies Unit at the University of Oxford. His research interests are varied but many concentrate on radical and just transitions in the socio- technical systems for the mobility of people, goods and information. He has published widely on these and other topics in journals in geography, urban studies, transport research and interdisciplinary science. xviii Contributors Steve Sorrell is Professor of Energy Policy in the SPRU, University of Sussex and Co-Director of CIED. He has undertaken a range of research on energy and climate policy, with particular focus on energy efficiency and resource depletion. This work is primarily informed by economics and has included case studies, econometric analysis and modelling. He has led several UK and international research projects and has acted as consultant to the European Commission, the UN, UK government departments, private sector organisa- tions and NGOs. Benjamin K. Sovacool , University of Sussex, is Professor of Energy Policy at the SPRU at the School of Business, Management, and Economics. There he serves as Director of the Sussex Energy Group and Director of the Center on Innovation and Energy Demand, which involves the University of Oxford and the University of Manchester. He works as a researcher and consultant on issues pertaining to energy policy, energy security, climate change mitiga- tion and climate change adaptation. More specifically, his research focuses on renewable energy and energy efficiency, the politics of large-scale energy infrastructure, designing public policy to improve energy security and access to electricity, and building adaptive capacity to the consequences of climate change. Karen Turner is Director of the Centre for Energy Policy (CEP) at the Univer- sity of Strathclyde. Her main research interests lie in developing economy- wide modelling methods to explore the wider societal value delivered by, and whether ‘the macroeconomic case’ can be made for policy support of, a range of low- carbon energy policy solutions, with current focus on energy effi- ciency, hydrogen and Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS). She was Principle Investigator on the EPSRC Working with the End Use Energy Demand (EUED) Centres project titled ‘Energy Saving Innovations and Economy- wide Rebound Effects’ and has participated in and led a range of previous interdisciplinary research projects on energy policy relevant topics. Janette Webb is Professor of Sociology of Organisations at the University of Edinburgh, UK. Her research is about energy and climate change. In collabo- ration with the EPSRC CIED, she is studying comparative European heat and energy efficiency policies and practices, with a particular focus on innovation in cities. Additional work is analysing local government energy developments in the UK and evaluating the Scottish Energy Efficiency Programme. She leads the Heat and the City research group and is a Co- Investigator in the UK Centre for Research on Energy Demand. Preface The research presented throughout this book represents the culmination of the work conducted in the first five years of the Centre on Innovation and Energy Demand (CIED), one of six End Use Energy Demand Centres funded by the Research Council United Kingdom (RCUK) Energy Programme. CIED sits at the forefront of research on the transition to a low-carbon economy, investigat- ing new technologies and new ways of doing things that have the potential to transform the way energy is used and to achieve substantial reductions in energy demand. The research conducted by CIED is interdisciplinary, drawing on ideas from economics, history, innovation studies, sociology and geography. It is also multi- method, including qualitative and quantitative techniques ranging from historical and contemporary case studies, surveys, modelling to econometric analysis. Finally, it is practical, working with stakeholders to investigate the adoption of low-energy innovations relevant for a variety of sectors, including transport, industry, households and non-domestic buildings. The authors featured in this book are either members of the core CIED groups at the Universities of Sussex, Manchester and Oxford, or members of the affiliate organisations, the Universities of Strathclyde and Edinburgh. All authors wish to give thanks to the RCUK for enabling the research presented within this book, as well as to the participants, collaborators, and Advisory Board members who have shaped this research. Both editors would also like to acknowledge and sincerely thank Cameron Roberts for his extensive commit- ment to the project, and Asa Morrison for his assistance with the formatting of the final volume.