THE COPPER TUTORIAL Version 2 023 AUGUST 2 1 , 2023 COPPER ALLIANCE 1 Document Issue Control Sheet Document Title: The Copper Tutorial Publication No: Cu0283 Issue: 0 3 Release: Public Updates for this edition • Section 3.5 added. • Section 3.6 added. • Minor update of section 5.3 – references. • Section 8.1. added. • Minor update of section 9.2 – link added for safety benefit. • Minor edit to section 10.1. • Expansion of section 10.3 with flow diagram. • Minor update for section 12.1 – re ferences. • Expansion of section 18.3 – list extended. • Update of section 20.1 – annual report added. • Update of section 20.7.3 – 2023 report on materials movement added. • Minor update to section 21.1 – CDA glossaries added. Disclaimer While this publication has been prepared with care, International Copper Association and other contributors provide no warranty with regards to the content and shall not be liable for any direct, incidental or consequential damages that may result from the use of the information or the data contained. 2 Table of Contents 0. About the tutorial 5 0.1. Acknowledgement 5 0.2. The making of the copper tutorial 6 1. History of copper 7 1.1. How long has copper been used by mankind? 7 1.2. Where can I find copper on Unesco's World Heritage List? 8 1.3. What are some of the oldest copper companies (that still ope rate today)? 9 2. Copper’s properties 11 2.1. How does copper set the standard for electrical conductivity? 11 2.2. How does copper compare to aluminium as a conductor for electricity? 12 2.3. Besides conductivity, what are other important properties of copper? 14 2.4. What is the color of copper? 15 3. Copper resources 18 3.1. How much copper has been mined since the dawn of mankind? 18 3 .2. How is copper found (about copper exploration)? 20 3.3. How has copper production evolved si nce 1900? 22 3.4. What are by - products of copper production? 25 3.5. How are exploration results reported? 27 3.6. What's the difference between exploration results, resources and reserves? 28 4. Mining copper 31 4.1. How is copper produced? 31 4.2. What's the life of a copper mine project? 33 5. Smelting and r efining 34 5.1. How a copper smelter works 34 5.2. What products does a copper smelter produce? 36 5.3. What are TC/RCs (Treatment and Refining Charges)? 37 5.4. What is the metal wheel? 40 6. Alloys and foundries 42 7. From copper to semis 43 7.1. How much copper is used for conductivity applications? 43 8. Products using copper 44 8.1. Where is copper used in a smartphone? 44 3 9. Systems using copper 45 9.1. Where is copper used? 45 9.2. What are the benefits of copper in use? 47 9.3. Copper in photovoltaic power systems 48 9.4. Copper in wind power plants 50 10. End - of - life and recycling 51 10.1. What is the average lifetime of copper in use? 51 10.2. How much copper is used in its unalloyed form? 53 10.3. How much energy and greenhouse gas emissions are saved when recycling copper? 54 11. Economics of copper 56 11.1. How many people work in the copper industry? 56 11.2. How has the copper price evolved over the past 121 years? 58 12. Copper business 61 12.1. How is the copper price set? 61 12.2. What is the shareholder structure of the (copper) mining industry? 63 13. Copper's environmental profile 64 13.1. How much energy & carbon emissions are saved when upsizing a cable? 64 13.2. What is the carbon balance of copper use in the energy transition? 66 13.3. What is the Copper Environmental Profile? 68 14. Copper in society 69 14.1. What makes copper unique? 69 14.2. What's the role of copper in human health? 71 15. Regulatory environment 72 16. The future of copper 73 16.1. Why does the energy transition need more copper? 73 16.2. How has the copper industry evolved over the past decades? 75 17. Key numbers 77 17.1. Where is copper produced? 77 18. The chapter of tens 79 18.1. Show me a few copper mines 79 18.2. What are some examples of copper mine rehabilitation? 80 18.3. Which historic copper sites are open to the public? 82 19. Copper topics 84 20. Organisations supporting the copper industry 8 5 20.1. What is I nternational Copper Association? 85 4 20.2. What is the International Wrought Copper Council (IWCC) ? 85 20.3. What is the International Copper Study Group (ICSG)? 85 20.4. What is the Copper Development Association Africa? 86 20.5. What is Cochilco? 86 20.6. What are some of the milestones of copper industry association? 87 20.7. Copper industry initiatives 89 20.7.1. What is the end - use dataset? 89 20.7.2. What is the copper flow model? 90 20.7.3. What is the Zero Emission Mine of the Future initiative? 92 21. Further readings 94 21.1. Copper glossary 94 21.2. What textbooks are available on copper? 95 22. Copper & other metals 96 22.1. What does all metal mining have in common? 96 5 0. About the tutorial 0.1. Acknowledgement A warm thanks to my colleagues from the copper network and its members and partners who have been extensively contacted to provide generous input on the complex story of copper: In alphabetical order, and without committing any contributor to the content: Florian Anderhuber (Euromines), Stijn Baken, Colin Bennett, Mukund Bhagwat, Laurent Chokoualé Datou, John Fennell (ICAA), Efren Franco, John Hipchen, Andy Kireta, Marcel Kloska (Aurubis), Steve Kukoda, Katia Lacasse, Richard Leveille, Mark Loveitt (IWCC), Amelia Miles, Fernando Nuno, Víctor Pérez (Alta Ley), Gabrielle Peterson, Robert Pinter, Michal Ramczykowski, Ana Rebelo (ICSG), Bernard Res paut, Carlos Risopatron (ICSG), Geraud Servin, Hernan Sierralta, Aleksandra Szkutnik - Wolszczak (KGHM), Luis Tercero (Fraunhofer), Ladji Tikana (Kupferverband), Wendy Wellens, Tanja Winter (Aurubis) ----- Last update: December 9 , 2022 6 0.2. The making of t he copper tutorial Through this initiative, the Copper Alliance (CA) aims to answer a central question: how can the central role that copper plays in the energy transition, the circular economy and digitalisation be balanced with the potential environmenta l and social impacts of copper production? The copper tutorial aims to provide a full picture of copper, from mining to end - of - life and recycling. It’s a complex story. Copper, as a base metal, is ubiquitous. If a system doesn’t directly use copper, copper has often played a role in its production. Copper makes applications more efficient, reliable and safe. Once mined, copper has a long lifetime of use. As it is one of the few metals that can be recycled without loss of properties, it not only has a long l ifetime, but it also can have many lives. To release these benefits, we need mining and recycling, i.e., primary and secondary raw materials. Gradually, as the world economy develops, the share of secondary raw materials can increase. But, there remains a need for mining to support societal growth, to provide copper for the green transition and to compensate for losses in an increasingly circular economy. Currently, there are close to 500 working copper mines, ranging from small operations to the world’s la rgest copper mines, such as Escondida, Grasberg or Morenci. How many mines are needed, and how can these mines be justified from an environmental or social perspective? The copper tutorial is based on published materials. There is a rich literature on copp er, and therefore, CA does not need to reinvent the wheel and can follow a curation approach. The tutorial provides short answers to frequently asked questions with links to further information. While the copper industry is ever - changing, and new data and research is continually in development, CA experts work to provide information that is accurate and up - to - date. The tutorial answers are open for comments, and CA welcomes the viewpoints of those interested in the copper industry. The copper tutorial is av ailable at http://help.copper.fyi . Through an artificially - intelligent system, users can ask questions about copper. If an unanswered question remains, please type it in the search box, and an additional answer will be developed if it is available. Welcome to the copper tutorial! —— - Last update: 3 June 2022 7 1. History of copper 1.1. How long has copper been used by mankind? “The story of copper and its principle alloys, bronze and brass, is virtually a chronicle of human endeavour since man emerged from the Stone Age.[ Webster Smith in “Sixty Centuries of Copper” (1965 edition)]” Copper was the first metal used in quantity by humans. Since 10,000 BC, 12 millennia ago, cop per helped to pull mankind out of the Stone Age. Initially, native copper was used to exploit copper’s corrosion resistance, good workability and high thermal conductivity. Around six millennia ago, humans mastered the skill to extract copper from ore and went on to alloy copper into bronze for improved strength and durability. More information ● 60 centuries of copper: a microsite based on Webster Smith’s book freely available from the CDA Inc website - https://www.copper.org/education/history/60centuries/ ● Copper timeline: an interactive resource from CDA Inc, providing copper milestones against the context of human development - https://www.copper.org/education/history/timeli ne/ —— Last update: Monday, 30 June 2022 8 1.2. Where can I find copper on Unesco's World Heritage List? A search on 'copper' produces 14 re sults on the World Heritage List. Of these, some entries have rather cursory linkages to copper, leaving ten heritage sites where copper is present on the central stage: 1. Chile: Sewell - Mining town. 2. Germany: Rammelsberg - Non - ferrous metal mining; 3. Germany: Bremen - Copper roof 4. Germany: Wilhelmshöhe - Copper statue of Hercules 5. Jordan: Petr - Umm al Amad copper mines and underground galleries (fourth millennium BC) 6. Norway: Røros - Mining town 7. Oman: Archaeological Sites of B at, Al - Khutm and Al - Ayn - copper extraction (third millennium BC) 8. Sweden: Falun - copper mining since the 13th century 9. Tajikistan: Sarazm - copper working 10. UK: Cornwall - 56 copper mining sites, producing 50% of world copper in the 19th century 11. US: New York - Statue of Liberty ----- Last update: March 1, 2022 9 1.3. What are some of the oldest copper companies (that still operate today)? If we include precursors, some copper companies have roots back to the 16th century, but most companies started in the 19th and 20th centuries with the industrial revolution. Hereby an incomplete overview. Copper Alliance Members Company Start Year (precursors) Activity Link Anglo American 1917 Mining >> Antofagasta 1888 (1980 - mining) Mining >> Aurubis 1876 (1770) Smelting & refining >> BHP 1885 (1851) Mining >> Boliden 1920 Mining >> Codelco 1976 (1955) Mining >> Collahuasi 1880 Mining >> Freeport 1988 (1834 ) Mining >> Glencore 1974 Mining >> Grupo Mexico 1892 Mining >> KGHM 1949 Mining >> LS Nikko 1936 Smelter >> Mitsubishi Materials 1871 Mining >> Outotec ~ 1850 Technology >> Rio Tinto 1873 Mining >> Southern Copper 1952 Mining >> Sumitomo Metal Mining 1590 Mining >> Teck 1913 (1954 - Cu) Mining >> Vale 1901 Mining >> 10 Other actors Company Start Year (precursors) Activity Link Chinalco Luoyang 1954 Fabricator >> Furukawa 1896 Wire & cable >> Griset 1760 Fabrication >> KME 1886 Fabrication >> Leoni 1917 (1569) Wire systems >> Materion 1931 Advanced materials >> Nexans 1897 Wire & cable >> Prysmian 1879 Wire & cable >> Sims Ltd 1917 Recycling >> Wieland 1820 Fabrication >> ----- Since copper is a very long - term business , it matters that mining operators can manage a project through its entire life - cycle. The median start date of operations for Copper Alliance's membersh ip is 1907. Our youngest member started in 1988 while the oldest member has roots going back to the 16th century. ----- Last update: November 25, 2021 11 2. Copper’s properties 2.1. How does copper set the standard for electrical conductivity? As the best electrical conductor among metals, 70% of copper is used for conductivity applications . So how does copper set the standard for conductivity? In 1913 (revised in 1925), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) adopted the German standard for the electrical conductivity of copper. This International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS) has become the m ain reference for electrical conductivity, and the conductivity of copper and aluminium alloys are usually expressed in terms of IACS. The IACS standard describes the properties for 100% IACS at 20°C: ● Volume resistivity: 1/58 = 0.017241 ohm - mm2/m ● Temperatu re coefficient of volume resistivity = 68e - 6 ohm - mm2/m.K ● Density: 8,890 kg/m3 ● Mass resistivity: 0.15328 ohm - gramme/m2 ● Temperature coefficient of mass resistivity = 0.00393/K Since the adoption of IEC 60028, copper processing technologies have improved and, as a result, routine production of high - conductivity copper can reach or exceed 101% IACS. The conductivity of other metals can be expressed in IACS as well: Metal IACS Silver 106% Copper 100% Gold 70% Aluminium (unalloyed) 61% Iron 17% Lead 8% Stainless steel 2% References ● IEC 60028:1925 - International standard of resistance for copper, available from https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/98 (checked October 28, 2021) ● White paper, electrical conductors , European Copper Institute, June 2019 ----- Last update: June 1, 2022 12 2.2. How does copper compare to aluminium as a conductor for electricity? Copper and aluminium are both extensively used as electrical conductors. How to compare a copper and an aluminium conductor? Cf the table below: • Copper sets the standard for conductivity . Aluminium has about 60% of copper's conductivity, or copper is about 66% more conductive for electric ity. • Aluminium is 3.3 times lighter than copper. • Hence, for the same current carrying capacity and the same efficiency (in ohmic regime): o The copper conductor will be 3.3/1.66 = 2 times heavier. o An equivalent aluminium conductor will be 1.66 larger in cros s session, hence have 1.29 times the diameter., requiring more insulation, more steel, more oil, ... Or the copper conductor can save 22% (= 0.29/1.29) on materials surrounding the conductor. Parameter Unit Copper Aluminium Conductivity % IACS 101 61 Relative conductor cross section - 100 166 Density kg/l 8.9 2.7 Equivalent weight for the same current capacity kg 1 0.5 In practice, conductor diameters are rarely available in 66% diameter increments and small differences in cable efficiency will be observed when comparing a copper conductor with a 1 - size - up aluminium conductor. In addition, for power cables, other factors such as eddy currents and the proximity effect define a cable's efficiency. As for electrical machines such as motors and transformers, energy efficiency varies as a function of other design parameters besides conductor cross section. Therefore, typical material savings in the range of 8 - 25% can be expected from the benefit of copper's compactness: • Insulated cables: savings on the amount of insulation materials between 10 and 25%. • Distribution transformers: 8 - 12% savings in steel when replacing the high - voltage winding with copper. • Induction motors: 8 - 13% savings in steel when using a copper rotor in duction motor. 13 References • IEC 60228, Conductors of insulated cables • Preparatory study for the review of Commission Regulation 548/2014 on ecodesign requirements for small, medium and large power transformers, July 2017, https://transformers.vito.be/sites/transformers.vito.be/files/attachments/ec_dg_ growth_lot2_Transformer_Jul2017b.pdf - accessed June 23, 2022 • Francesco Parasiliti, Marco Villani, New induction motor designs with Aluminum and Copper rotor specially developed to reach the IE3 efficiency level, University of L'Aquila, Internal report, June 2012 ----- Last update: October 2 6 , 2022 14 2.3. Besides conductivity, what are other important properties of copper? Copper sets the standard for electrical conductivity but that's not the end of th e story. Cf the attached data - sheet, copper has also desirable thermal, mechanical, electrochemical and alloying properties which explain its more than a hundred application areas as a base metal. Metals that have good electrical conductivity also have hig h thermal conductivity. So copper is also a material of choice for highly efficient, compact heat exchangers for use in refrigerators, heat pumps, air conditioning equipment, solar thermal panels, district heating systems or industrial applications. Good m echanical properties such as creep and fatigue resistance make copper perform in electrical contacts. These properties ensure the ability to make reliable and safe fixed contacts in electrical systems that last for decades. For non - fixed contacts, copper i s often alloyed to improve strength. Mechanical properties also influence copper's malleability. Copper can be drawn into wires as tiny as 50 microns (half the diameter of a human hair). Thin copper wires can be stranded into flexible cables which are easi ly installed with a low bending radius. Malleable copper also enables the production of musical instruments, works of art, furniture frames and a huge number of other products. Copper has electrochemical properties that yield a further set of advantages. C opper is corrosion - resistant and can therefore be used for several hundred years in outdoor applications without corroding. It is also used for this property in marine applications, in demanding chemical environments, for high integrity earthing systems or for bare overhead conductors in coastal regions. In the future, these properties may be further exploited in energy storage applications, advanced metallurgical processing or catalytic applications Finally, copper can be easily alloyed. About 20% of copper is used in its alloyed form through over 400 alloys to improve strength, corrosion resistance, micro - alloys for high strength and conductivity, wear resistance, machi nability or heat resistance. References [1] Data - sheet - copper properties - https://help.copper.fyi/hc/en - us/article_attachments/592867 3006994/Data_sheet_ - _copper_properties.docx [2] Copper is ... - https://help.leonardo - energy.org/hc/en - us/articles/4801948918034 ----- Last update: June 6, 2022 15 2.4. What is the color of copper? Besides gold, copper is the only metal that is colored. Since it also occurs in nature in its native form, and is more abundant than gold, we can speculate that copper was the first metal ever recognized by humankind though gold is the first metal ever used for ornaments. Our ancestors must have been intrigued by those brownish/reddish stones. Copper is often called "the red metal", probably for the reddish appearance of newly produced wire rod for wire & cable, which represents about 60% of copper use. It is however not a pure red. A discussion with a colleague from France reveals that they concluded on defining the color as 'salmon pink', which mak es sense upon a closer look. When insulated or coated, copper's color will not change, but when exposed to air, oxidation will gradually change the color to brown. Sometimes, heat accelerates this process. E.g. new copper tube will look reddish just like wire rod, but with time, it becomes brown. End - of - life copper scrap shows a similar color. 16 Alloying in combination with surface treatment can provide a spectrum of colors as shown below: 17 Further diversity comes when copper is used in outdoor applications and exposed to a combi na tion of water, atmospheric conditions (e.g. salinity) and solar radiation. Copper's colors, in combination with its malleability and durability make it also a popular and versatile material in the arts. References Cop per is ... - https://help.leonardo - energy.org/hc/en - us/articles/4801948918034 How Copper and Copper Alloy Surfaces Evolve - https://issuu.com/copperinarchitecture/ docs/surfaceevolutioneng_6742e3ff45d3d9 (accessed November 9, 2022) Surface appearance of copper - based materials at unsheltered marine conditions - https://issuu.com/copperinarchitecture/docs/151110cubrochurekth (accessed November 9, 2022) Copper in the arts (2007 - 2022) by CDA Inc - https://copper.org/consume rs/arts/ (accessed November 9, 2022) ----- Last update: November 23, 2022 18 3. Copper resources 3.1. How much copper has been mined since the dawn of mankind? Thanks to ICSG , we have good copper production statistics since 1900. But copper metallurgy has supported human development over sixty centuries . How about the other 59 centuries? Using the references below, we can estimate some datapoints to derive copper production from the Bronze age. Era Copper production over the era Cumulative production Bronze age ( - 2000 to - 700) 1 million tonnes 1 million tonnes Roman era ( - 250 to +350) 5 million tonnes 6 million tonnes From the fall of the Roman era to 1800 8 million tonnes 14 million tonnes Industrial revolution (19th century) 36 million tonnes 50 million tonnes 20th century 412 million tonnes 462 million tonnes 21st century (2001 to 2021) 360 million tonnes 822 million tonnes Compared to the 452 million tonnes of copper in use in 2018 , 759 million tonnes had ever been mined in 2018, i.e. 60% of copper that had then been mined was still in productive use. However, one could note a strong acceleration of copper use: 60% of 452 million tonnes is also the amount of copper that has been mined over the period 1986 - 2018. Pretty soon, we'll have mined as much copper in the 21st century as in the previous six millennia. This leads to important questions such as whether the copper sector is ready to support 21st century copper demand and how this can be done in an environmentally and socially responsible manner. These are questions that we'll address elsewhere in this tutorial, and which can only be answered in dialogue with local, regional and global stakeholders. 19 References ● Hong, S., J. P. Candelone, and C. C. Patterson. 1996. “History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution during Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice.” Science. https://s cience.sciencemag.org/content/272/5259/246.abstract ● Fizaine, Floriant, and Xavier Galiegue. 2021. L’économie des ressources minérales et le défi de la soutenabilité 1 - Contexte et enjeux. https://www.istegroup.com/en/produit/leconomie - des - ressources - minerales - et - le - defi - de - la - soutenabilite - 1/ (checked October 21, 2021) ● Fizaine, Floriant, and Xavier Galiegue. 2021. L’économie des ressources minérales et le défi de la soutenabilité 2 - Enjeux et leviers d'action. https://www.istegroup.com/en/produit/leconomie - des - ressources - minerales - et - le - defi - de - la - soutenabilite - 2/ (checked October 21, 2021) ----- Last up date: June 17, 2022