€amllribge Jl~torftal ~tries THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND ITS SUCCESSORS, 1801-1927 .CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS LONDON: Fetter Lane NEW YORE The Macmillan Co. BoMBAY, CALCUTTA and MADRAS Macmillan and Co., Ltd. ToaoN-ro The Macmillan Co. or Canada, Ltd. TokYO Maruzen-K.abushiki-K.aisha All rights reserved THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND ITS SUCCESSORS, 1801-1927 By W'ILLIAM l\IILLER, M.A. (OxoN.); F.R.H.S. Hon. LL.D .. in the National University of Greece: Corresponding Member of the Historical and Ethnological Society of Greece: Author of <J'he Latins ;, the .LnJa1Jt, BEING A REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, I801-1913 "Who doubts but the Grtcia11 Christians, Descendants of the ancient Possessors of that Country, may justly cast off the Turkish yoke which they have so long groaned under whenever they have an opportunity to do it ? " LocKE, Of Civil Governmmt. Cambridge at the University Press 1927 First Editw11 1913 Gt"ei!ll Translalwll 1914 S«tmd EditiOII 191.3 TAira Editio11 1917 PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN GENERAL PREFACE The aim of this series is to sketch the history of Modern Europe, with that of its chief colonies and conquests, from about the end of the fifteenth century down to the present time. In on~ or two cases the story commences at an earlier date: in the case of the colonies it generally begins later. The histories of the different countn'es are described, as a rule, separately ,· for it is believed that, exapt in epochs like that of the French Revolution and Napoleon I, /he comtecli'on of events will thus be better under- stood and the continuity of historical development more clearly displayed. · The series is intended for the use of all persons anxious /o understand the nature of existing political conditt'ons. "The roots of the present lie deep in /he past".,· and /he real significance of contemporary events cannot be grasped unless the historical causes which have led to them are known. The plan adopted makes i't -possible /o treat the history of /he las/ four centuries in consider- able detail, and to embody the most important results of modern research. II is hoped therefore that the series wi'll be useful not only to beginners but to students who have already acquired some general knowledge of European History. For those who wisk to carry their studits further, the bibliograpky appended /o each volume will act as a guide to original sources of information and works of a more special ckaracter. Considerable attention i's paid to political geography,· and eack volume is furnished witk suck maps and plans as may bf: requisite for the illustratz'on of the text. G. W. PROTHERO. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION T HE present work has been based, wherever possible, upon the original documents, and is the result of many years' study of the Eastc::rn Question. I am indebted to the editors of The Etzglish Histon"cal and The lVeslminster Reviews for permission to reprint with considerable additions two articles contributed to those periodicals ; and I desire to thank H. E. M. J. Gennadios, former Greek Minister in London,. for access to his unrivalled collection of pamphlets, and Cav. Pasqualucci, librarian of the Consulta, for his courtesy in allowing me to use the library of the Italian Foreign Office. With regard to the spelling of Greek names, while common words have been written in their popular, unaccented form, rarer words have been reproduced in Greek· dress with their accents. Slav names have been transliterated. W.:M. ROME, july 22, 1922. PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION • T HE additional pages of the third edition, so far as Greece is concerned, are largely the work of an eye-witness; for, resident in Ath.ens since November, 1923, I have been a spectator of all the political movements connected with the creatioq of the Hellenic Republic. W.M. ATHENS, July, 1927. EDITORIAL NOTE The later relations of Turkey and other Powers with Egypt are not included in this work, having been discussed m another volume of this series, The Colom"zalion of Afrl"ca. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AT THE DAWN OF THE XIXth CENTURY Relations of Turkey with the four great Powers, France, Russia, Austria, and Great Britain-Eastern policy of Prussia-Extent of the Ottoman empire in Europe-In Asia, and Africa-Organisation and races of European Turkey-Local tyrants-Division between 1\Iussulmans and Christians--Bosnian feudalism-Condition of the Serbs-The Al- banians-The Greeks-The Greek Church-The Phanariotes-State of Greece: privileged communities l CHAPTER II NAPOLEON IN THE NEAR EAST (1801-15) The French in Dalmatia-Destruction of the Republics of Poljitza and Ragusa-France and Montenegro-First Russo-Turkish war of the century- Duckworth before Constantinople-Paper partition of Turkey at Tilsit-Second French occupation of the Ionian Islands-Capture of the Islands by the British- Treaty of Bucharest-Congresses of Vienna and Paris : British protectorate over the Ionian Islands • 3 I CHAPTER III THE SERVIAN RISINGS (1804-17) Tyranny of the Janissaries--Mild rule and murder of Hajji Mustapha- Servian loyal rising of 18o+: Kara George-Servian overtures to Austria. and Russia-Servian victories-Palace revolutions in Con· stantinople-Russian protectorate over Servia-Treaty of Bucharest abandons the Serbs-Second Servian rising of 1815: Milosh Obren· ovich-Murder of Kara George-Milosh recognised as chief 46 Vlll Contents CHAPTER IV THE PREFACE OF GREEK INDEPENDENCE (1815-21) · The British in the Ionian Islands : Sir Thomas Ma~tland, first Lord High Commissioner-Constitution of 1817-The cession of Parga-Ali Pasha declared a rebel, appeals to the Greeks- The Pkilild H~tairla Alexander Hypselantes, leader of the Greek movement, crosses the · Pruth-Rival Roumanian rising of Tudor Vladimirescu-Battles of Dragashani and Skuleni-Native princes in the Danubian Princi- palities • ss CHAPTER V THE WAR OF GREEK INDEPENDENCE (1821-9) Outbreak of the Revolution-Heroic death of Diakos--Spread of the insmrection to the islands-Murder of the Patriarch Gregory V- Three stages in the war-The "Peloponnesian Senate "-Arrival of Demetrios Hypselantes and Alexander Mavrokordatos-Sack of Tripolitsa-Constitution of Epfdauros-End of Ali Pasha-Massacre of Chios-Foundation of Hermoupolis-Capitulation of the Akropolis -Greek victory at Dervenaki-Defeat at Pc!ta-First " Commis· sioner" of Crete-Second National Assembly at A.stros-Canning's Philhellenism-Russian proposal for three Greek principalities-Death of Marko Botzares-Byron in Greece-The first Greek loan-Byron's death at Meso!Onghi-" War of the Primates "-Destruction of Kissos and Psara-Ibrahim lands in the Morea-Santa Rosa at Navarino- Second siege of Mesol6nghi-Death of OdysseUs-The sortie from Mesol6nghi-Protocol of April4, 1826-Turkish siege of the Akropolis -Death of Karaiskakes-Second surrender of the Akropolis-Third National Assembly at Troizc!n : Capo d'Istria elected President of Greece-Treaty of London of 1827-Battle of Navarino-Death of Hastings-The Cretans at Grabo!lsa-Arrival of Capo d'Istria-The "Panhellt!nion "-Policy of the President-France compels the Egyptians to evacuate the Morea- Destruction of Tripolitsa-Protocol of March u, 1829-Fourth National Assembly at Argos-Battle of Petra : end of the war 71 Contents lX CHAPTER VI THE CREATION OF THE GREEK. KINGDOM (I829-33) Protocols of February 3, 1830: Leopold of Saxe-Coburg "Sovereign Prince of Greece "-Leopold refuses-Conflict between Capo d'Istria and the Hydriotes-Catastrophe of Pores-Assassination of Capo d'lstria-Provisional Commission of three-Fifth National Assembly at Argas-Agostino chosen President : civil war-Otho "King of Greece "-Limits of the kingdom-Samian autonomy-Crete united with Egypt-Triumph of Kolettes and the "Constitutionalists"- Anarchy-National Assembly at Prc:inoia-Flight of the Senate from N auplia-Fight with the French at Argos-Arrival ofOtho-Prosperity of the Ionian Islands-Napier in Cephalonia-Adam Lord High Com- missioner-The" Ionian Academy "-Parties in the Islands 106 CHAPTER VII THE BALK.AN AND SYRIAN DIFFICULTIES OF TURKEY (1822-45) Roumanian Nationalist movement: Asaki and Eliade-Convention of Akkerman-Russo-Turkish war of 1828-9: Russian occupation of the Principalities-Treaty of Adrianople-The ,.;g/mzent organique- Servia at Akkerman and Adrianople-Grant of Servian autonomy : Milosh hereditary Prince of an enlarged Servia-Turkish garrisons of the Servian fortresses-Despotism of Milosh : " Constitution of Sretenje"-British support of Milosh-Creation of a Servian Senate- Milosh abdicates-Milan Obrenovich 11-Michael Obrenovich III's first reign-Alexander Karageorgevich elected Prince-" The Dragon of Bosnia "-Ali Pasha Rizvanbegovich-Union of the Piperi with Montenegro- Peter II reorganises Montenegro : abolition of the civil "governorship "-His conflicts with the Turks-Revolt of Mehemet Ali : invasion of Syria- The Russians "protect" the Sultan: treaty of Hunkiar lskelesi-Battle of Nezib-Death of MahmM 11-Quadri- lateral convention of 184o-Settlement of Egypt and Thasos- " Convention of the Straits "-Charter of GUl·kMneh-The Le- banon CHAPTER VIII GREECE UNDER THE BAVARIAN AUTOCRACY (1833-43) The Regency-Disbanding of .the irregulars-Bureaucratic system-Eccle- siastical policy-Conspiracy of Kolokotr6nes- Revolt of the Mainates- Recall of Maurer and Abel-Insurrection in Arkad{a and Messenia- X Contents The capital removed from Nauplia to. Athens-Otho's majority- Insurrection in Akamanfa-Rudhart Prime Minister-Founding of the University-" British," 11 French," and "Russian" parties-Crete under the Egyptians-The Cretan insurrection of 1841-The revolution of September 3/15 at Athens-Progress of Greece during the decade 1833-43 156 CHAPTER IX THE GREEK AND IONIAN CONSTITUTIONS (1843-53) The Greek Constitution of 1844-Administration of Kolettes-The Mou- sollros incident-Local disturbances-The Pacifico case: Cervi and Sapienza- The "Synodal Tome" of 185o: independence of the Church · in Greece-Nugent, Douglas and Mackenzie in the Ionian Islands- Seaton's reforms in the Constitution: introduction of a free press- Risings in Cephalonia-The first reformed Ionian Parliament- Bibescu and Michael Sturdza in the Principalities- Roumanian revo- lution of 1848-Convention of Balta Liman-Reigns of Barbe Stirbeiu. and Gregory V Ghika-Austrophil policy of Servia-Montenegro : succession of Danilo-Abolition of the theocratic system-Count Leiningen's mission 174 CHAPTER X THE CRIMEAN WAR (1853-6) The Holy Places-Mentschikoll's mission-Motives of Napoleon III- Overtures of the Tsar-5tratford de Redcliffe-Settlement of the original dispute-Fresh Russian demands-The Russians cross the Pruth-" The Vienna Note "-Destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope-British ultimatum-The Allies at Varna-British officers' defence of Silistria-Russia evacuates the Principalities-Effects of the war upon the Balkan races: Servia and Montenegro-Excitement in Greece: insurrections in Thessaly and Epirus-The Allies occupy the Piraeus-The cholera at Athens-The landing in the Crimea-Battle of the Alma-5iege of Sebastopol-Battles of Balaclava and Ioker- man-The Crimean winter-" The four points "-Battle of the Tchemaya-Fall of Sebastopol-Congress and treaty of Paris--Small results ofthe treaty-The Montenegrin and Greek protocols • 199 Contents xi CHAPTER XI THE UNION OF THE DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES (I856-62) Growth of the Unionist idea-Convention of Paris-Election of Couza as Prince-First united Roumanian Assembly-Deposition of Alexander Karageorgevich-Restoration of ?liilosh-Second reign of Michael Obrenovich III-Bombardment of Belgrade-Partial evacuation of the Servian fortresses- Turco-Montenegrin war of 1858: battle of Grahovo -Assassination of Danilo-Accession of Nicholas 1-llerzegovinian rising of r86r-Turco-Montenegrin war of r86~-Convention of Scutari-Greek finance-Question of the Greek succession-Efl"ect of the Austro-ltalian war of 1859 on Greece-Combination of circum· stances against Otho-Revolt at Nauplia-Greek revolut~on of r8611: abdication of Otho ' 243 CHAPTER XII THE CESSION OF THE IONIAN ISLANDS (1862-4) Meeting of the National Assembly-Election of Prince Alfred as King- The search for a sovereign-Prince George of Denmark chosen "King of the Hellenes"-Fighting at Athens between "the Plain" and "the Mountain "-Arrival of King George-The Ionian question: scheme for the colonisation of CorfU and Paxo-The two stolen despatches- Gladstone's mission-Storks Lord High Commissioner-Union of the Ionian Islands with Greece-Neutralisation of Corf'u and Paxo- Destruction of the Corfiote fortresses- The Greek Constitution of r86+ 270 CHAPTER XIII REFORMS AND THEIR RESULTS : THE LEBANON AND CRETE (1856-69) Hatti-HumayfJn of 1856-Murder of the consuls at Jedda-The Massacres in the Lebanon-French expedition to Syria-Organisation of the Lebanon in r86r-4-The Cretan Insurrections of 1858 and r866-!)- Defence of Arkadion-" Organic Statute of r868 "-Turkish ultimatum to Greece-Hobart Pasha at Syra-Conference of Paris • 298 xii Contents CHAPTER XIV THE ROUMANIAN AND SERVIAN QUESTIONS (1862-75) Murder of Barbe Catargi-Secularisation of the monasteries-Conza's cou) d'llat-Agrarian law-Free education-Deposition of Couza- Prince Charles of Hohenzollem-Sigmaringen Prince of Roumania- . Constitution of 1866: the Jewish question-The Prince's recognition by the Sultan-His'difficult position during the Franco-German war- The railway question-Servia: suggested Serbo-Greek alliance- Complete Turkish evacuation of Servia-Assassination of Michael- Milan Obrenovich IV Prince of Servia- The Regency: constitution of 1869-Milan's situation 319 CHAPTER XV THE BULGARIAN EXARCHATE (187<r5) Early Bulgarian risings-Bulgarian schools and books-The demand for national bishops-Relations· with the Papacy-Tartar and Circassian immigration-Midbat's administration-The Bulgarian emigrants at Bucharest-Creation of the Bulgarian Exarcbate- The "Apostles"- Liberation of the Black Sea-The "Marathon massacres "-The Uvrion mines-Constitutional questions at Athens 338 CHAPTER XVI THE BALKAN CRISIS OF 1875-8 State of Bosnia and the Herzegovina-The rising at Nevesinje-Grievances of the insurgents-Revolt in Bosnia-The Andrassy note-The Berlin Memorandum-Servia and Montenegro declare war on Turkey- " Benkovski" in the Sredna Gora- The massacre of Batak : the "Bulgarian •Atrocities "-Murder of the consuls at Salonika-De- position and death of Abdul Aziz-Murad V's brief reign: accession of Abdul Hamid li-The Servian war of 1876-Successful Mon- tenegrin campaign-The Constantinople conference-"Midhat's Parliament"-The London protocol-The Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8-Russo-Roumanian convention-Siege of Plevna-Second Montenegrin campaign-Second Servian war-Feeling .in Great Britain-The "CEcumenical government" at Athens-Insurrections in Epirus, Thessaly, and Crete-The treaty of San Stefano-The treaty of Berlin-The Cyprus convention-Present state of the Berlin treaty 358 Contmts ... Xlll CHAPTER XVII THE UNION OF THE TWO BULGARIAS (1878-87) • The Arab Tabia question-The regulation of the Danube-Roumania proclaimed a kingdom-Her relations with the Triple Alliance-The Austrians occupy Bosnia- The sanjak of Novibazar: Austro-Turkish convention of 1879- The "Albanian League" : Gusinje and Plava- The "Corti compromise"- The cession of Dulcigno-Kidnapping of the Mirdite Prince-Rectification of the Greek frontier-The Berlin conference of 188o-Greece receives Thessaly and Arta-Crete : the Pact of Halt!pa-Alexander of Battenberg first Prince of Bulgaria- Coup d' 1/al of 1881-Constitution of Eastern Roumelia- The • • Pomak Republic "-The Philippopolis revolution-Serbo-Bulgarian war: battle of Slivnitza-Blockade of Greece-Kidnapping of Alexander- His return and abdication-Kaulbars in Bulgaria-Election of Prince Ferdinand 399 CHAPTER XVIII ARMENIA, CRETE, AND MACEDONIA (1887-1908) The Armenian massacres-The Cretan insurrection and firman 9f 1889- The insurrection of 1896-Col. Vassos in Crete-Bombardment or Akroteri-The Greco-Turkish war of 1897-The International Com• mission of Control-Prince George of Greece High Commissioner in Crete- The OppositiC'n at Thc!risso-M. Zafmes High Commissioner- Rival races and Churches in Macedonia- The Macedonian Committee -Austro-Russian schemes of reform: the Miirzsteg programme-The bands in Macedonia- The occupation of Mitylene-Stambulov's rule in Bulgaria-His fall and assassination-Reconciliation with Russia: conversion of Prince Boris-Social condition of Bulgaria-Servia: the royal divorce-~ervian constitution of 1889-Milan's abdication- Alexander's coups d'ltat-H.is marriage-Constitution of 1901 : third coup d'ltat-Murder of Alexander and Draga-Eiection of Prince Peter Karageorgevich as King: constitution of June i:903-Rule of the regicides-Progress of Montenegro : the Italian mnniage:-Mon- tenegrin constitution of 1905-Results of emigration-Italian influence -Roumanian social problems: (1) the land, (1) the Jews- Roumanian foreign policy-Greek internal politics since 1898-Cyprus-The "Twelve Islands"-Thasos-Samos 427. XIV Contents CHAPTER XIX THE TURKISH REVOLUTION (1<}08-12) The "Committee of Union and Progress "-The revival of the Turkish constitution-Fratemisation of the Ottomans-Declaration of ~ul garian Independence-Annexation of Bosnia and the Herzegovina- Crete proclaims union with Greece-The counter-revolution in Turkey -The massacre at Adana-Deposition of Abdul Hamid II-Moham- med V-Settlement of the Bosnian and Bulgarian questions-Crete: attitude of the Powers-Increasing Turkish demands-Withdrawal of the international troops from Crete-The flag incident: Turkish notes to Greece- The Greek Military League- The two National Assemblies: M. Venizelos Premier-The revised Greek Constitution-The policy of "Turkification "-Albanian insurrection of 1911-The Libyan war: loss of Tripoli and the Cyrenaica-Italian occupation of 13 . islands • 474 CHAPTER XX THE BALKAN LEAGUE AND ITS RESULTS (19I2-14) Symptoms of unresto-Montenegro declares war: capture of Tuzi-Balkan ultimatum-The four states against Turkey-Victories of the Allies: fall of Uskiib and Salonika and battle of Liile Burgas-Armistice of Chatalja-Balkan Conference in St- James' Palace-Revolution at Constantinople-Denunciation of the armistice-Surrender of Joan- nina-Assassination of King George: accession of King Constantine- Surrender of Adrianople-Armistice of Bulair-N aval demonstration against Montenegro-SlllTender of Scutari and its cession by Monte- negro- Treaty of London-Italian opposition to Greece-Second Balkan war- Victories of the Greeks and Servians over the Bulgarians: battles of Kilkich, the Bregalnitza, Demir HiSsar, and Djumaia- Armed intervention of Roumania-The Turks recover Adrianople- Peace of Bucharest-Turco-Bulgarian treaty-Prince William of Wied becomes Prince of Albania-" Autonomous Epirus "-Civil war in Albania-Assassination of the Austrian Heir-Apparent-Austrian note to Servia-Outbreak of the European war 498 Contents XV CHAPTER XXI THE NEAR. EAST IN THE EUROPEAN \VAR (1914-23) Double Servian victory over the Austrians-Great Britain declares war on Turkey: annexation of Cyprus-Policy of M. Venizelos--Diplomatic effects of Italian intervention-Bulgaria enters the war-Annihilation • of Servia and Montenegro-Evacuation of the DardaneUes-Surrender of Roupel-Roumania enters the war: Allied offensive in Macedonia- The Venizelist Government at Salonika- The "First of December " at Athens-King Constantine's deposition- The Pact of Corfu : the Jugoslav state-The Italians in Albania-The liberation of Jerusalem- The Armenian massacres-The Roumanian coUapse: fourth treaty of Bucharest-The Bulgarian and Turkish armistices-The treaties of Neuiiiy and Sevres-The Kemalist movement-Fall of M. Venizelos- Revision of the Sevres treaty-Albanian independence-The "Adriatic question"-The end of Montenegro- The Asia Minor disaster-King Constantine's second deposition-Execution of "the Six "-The treaty of Lailsanne-Italian bombardment of Corfu • 523 CHAPTER XXII TH;E GREEK, TURKISH AND ALBANIAN REPUBLICS (1923-27) The Counter-revolution-Departure of King George Il-Retum and failure of M. Venizc!los-Proclamation of the HeUenic Republic-The pltbisdt~Successive Republican Cabinets-General Pangalos' coup, tl'itat and dictatorship-The Presidential election of 1926-General Pangalos' deposition-The street-fighting of September 9-The "<Ecumenical Government"- The Turkish Republic- The Agrarian revolution in Roumania-Death of King Ferdinand-Jugoslav foreign policy-Bulgaria's position-The ltalo-Albanian Pact-Summary of the whole period • 550 TABLE OF RULERS BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX • MAPS The Ottoman Empire in Europe 1856 Diagram to illustrate the Treaty of San Stefano The Ottoman Empire in Europe after the Treaty of Berlin, .-878 • The Ottoman Empire in Europe after the treaty of Lausanne, 1923 • The Ottoman Empire in r8or To face p. 242 To face p. 386 To face p. 398 To face p. 547 At emf CHAPTER I THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AT THE DAWN OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY THE near eastern question may be defined as the problem of filling up the vacuum created by the gradual disappearance of the Turkish empire from Europe. Its history, therefore, may be said to begin at the moment when that empire, having attained its zenith, commenced to decline. The European dominions of Turkey reached their greatest extent in the latter half of the seventeenth century, when "the great Greek island" of Crete, as the modern Hellenes love to call it, at last surrendered to the Turkish forces, and the king of Poland ceded Podolia to the Sultan. But the close of that same century witnessed the shrinkage of the Turkish frontiers. The peace of Karlovitz in 1699 has been justly called "the first dismemberment of the Ottoman empire." It was the initial step in the historical process which has slowly but surely gone on ever since. The eighteenth century saw the continuation of the work begun at Karlovitz, though now and again the Turkish dominions gained some temporary advantage, and European statesmen anticipated the dismemberment ·of the Sultan's European possessions and formed schemes for the partition of the spoil. At the beginning of the nineteenth century there were only four great European Powers, instead of six, directly interested in the eastern question, for Italy was not yet made and Prussia was only of the second rank, while Venice had ceased to exist. M. L. I 2 The Ottoman Empire (<.:H. Of these four-France, Russia, Austria, and Great Britain-the first had been for centuries the traditional ally of the Sultans. Francis I, who had begun his reign by proposing, as so many sovereigns have done since, the partition of Turkey, was the founder of this alliance, which, with· occasional intervals of anti-Turkish feeling, was the fixed policy of his successors. In spite of the scandal caused to devout Catholics by this union of France, 11 the eldest daughter of the Church," with the head of the infidel Turks, Francis found it politic to use Suleyman the Magnificent as an ally in his struggle with the house of Austria, the historic rival of the French monarchy. The power and geographical position of Turkey at that period, its naval forces and the requirements of French trade in the Levant, were all strong arguments, which outweighed any crusading instincts of the astute French king, just as in our own day we have seen the German Emperor champion the Turkish cause in the interests of German commerce. Together the French and Ottoman fleets bombarded Nice, while Toulon served as the Turkish base of operations. By the capitulations of ISJS, which were the most practical result of the Franco-Turkish alliance, the French received permission to trade in all the Ottoman ports-a privilege conceded to the vessels of other nations only on condition of flying the French flag. French subjects, residing in Turkey, were permitted the free exercise of their religion, and the custody of the Holy Places was entrusted to French Catholics. Henry II carried on the friendly policy of his father, and concluded a treaty with Suleyman, the object of which was to secure the co-operation of the Turkish fleet against the house of Austria. For a time the alliance ceased to be aggressive, but at the beginning of the seventeenth century French influence was predominant at Constantinople. The capitulations were renewed in 1604 ; and all nations except the English and the Venetians were compelled to seek the protection, and trade under the flag, of France in the Levant. But the capitulations of 1604 mark in this respect Early relati'ons witk France 3 a change from those of 1535· France now had powerful rivals in the east; England, Venice, and Holland exercised a competing influence on the Bosphorus; and in 1634 the Greeks assumed the custody of the Holy Places, thus foreshadowing the conflict which two centuries later led to the Crimean war. The French began to turn against the Turks; the plan ofa new crusade was drawn up by a French priest; a "sure means of destroying" the Ottoman empire was published by a French diplomatist. At the battle of St Gothard in 1664, French troops assisted the Austrians to beat the Turks ; during the siege of Candia French men-of-war brought aid to the Venetians, and the memory of the French commander, the due de Beau- fort, has still lingered outside the walls of that town. In fact, Louis XIV, though he tried to prevent Sobieski from saving Vienna, was hostile to the Turkish empire. His fleets entered the Dardanelles, and he obtained in 1673 new capitula- tions, recognising him as the sole protector of the eastern Catholics. [In the eighteenth century, the old friendly relations were resumed; and Turkey, menaced by Austria and Russia and already declining in force, was glad to avail herself of the good offices of France. The French ambassador at the time of the peace of Belgrade, by checkmating Austria, saved Servia to Turkey for three generations, and his influence was such that he became a sort of "Grand Vizier of the Christians." The capitulations of 1740, completing those of 1673, were the reward of French assistance, and remain at the present day a memorial of the Marquis de Villeneuve's diplomatic success. Numbers of French officers endeavoured, like the Germans in our day, to reform the Turkish army; and Bonneval and Baron de Tott worked hard in the Turkish cause. But the treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji ("the little fountain") in 1774 ruined French influence, and substituted for it that of Russia; and the French revolution prevented France from taking an active part in eastern affairs, though indirectly by means of French 1-2 4 The· Ottoman Emp-ire [en. emigds, who found their way to· the Orient, it. spread a knowledge of the French language and French customs. Soon the Ottoman dominions felt the weight of Bonaparte's influence. "lt is of no use for us," he wrote to the Directory, "to try to maintain the Turkish empire ; we shall witness its fall in o~r time.". The treaty of Campo-Formio in 1797 made France the near neighbour of the Sultan by ceding to her the Ionian islands-" more interesting to us than all Italy put together," as Bonaparte said-with Butrinto, Arta, V6nitza, and all the former Venetian establishments in Albania south of the gulf of the . Drin. The great French conqueror paid spe~ial attention to the ·Greeks; and two emissaries of the French government in Greece, the brothers Stefanopoli, members of the Greek colony at Cargese in Corsica, were sent on one of those semi-scientific,' semi-political missions, dear to modern foreign offices, to spread his fame in the Peloponnese. A legend grew up around the victorious general. Greek philo- logists discovered that his name was merely an Italian transla~ tion of two Greek words (~e~o p.lpo<>) and that he must therefore be descended from the Imperial family of the Kalomeroi Porphyrogenneto~ whose glories he was destined to . renew; Greek historians, remembering the emigration of the Mainates to Corsica more than a century earlier, boldly proclaimed him as the offspring of one of those Spartan families; and the women of Maina kept a lamp lighted before his portrait, "as bdore that of the Virgin." The idea of a restoration of the Byzantine empire with his aid became general. among the Greeks ; and Bonaparte was regarded as a deliverer of the Hellenic race. Not content with organising the' Ionian Islands as "the departments of Corcyra (com~ prising ~he islands of Corf~, Paxo, Antipaxo, and Fano, with their. continental dependencies, Butrinto and Parga}, Ithaca (including the islands of Santa Mavra, Cephalonia, and Itha~ with Preveza and V6nitza on the gulf of Arta), and the Aegean Sea "_(a vague term, which embraced-for the moment-Zante~ Early relatz"ons witk Russia 5 the Strophades, Cerigo, and Dragomestre in Akarnanla), ·the French government founded in the two Danubian Principalities, where the Greek element was predominant, two consulates, one at Bucharest, the other at Jassy, thus reviving an idea of Catherine de Medicis, who had once meditated colonising the Principalities with Huguenots, in order to · create French industries and influence in the east. The Egyptian expedition of Bonaparte at last caused the Sultan to declare war against France, his traditional ally, and to ally himself with Russia, his traditional enemy. Russia was alarmed at the success of the French propaganda among the Greeks, and desirous that a strong French protectorate over the Christians of Turkey should not rise up as a barrier to her own schemes. Britain, engaged in a life-and-death struggle with France, joined the Russo-Turkish alliance, and the natural result was the loss of Fren~h possessions and the destruction of French trade in the east. The Ionian Islands were occupied by the Russians and Turks; the French commercial houses in the Levant were· ruined. France, therefore, at. the beginning of the nineteenth century, was no longer the upholder of the Ottoman empire.· Bonaparte had, by· his erratic genius, reversed her secular policy, and forced .Russia, in self-defence, to defend the Turk~ But. Ottoman statesmen could have no illusions as to the ultimate aims of the· northern Power. For generations Russia and Turkey had been rivals, and a series of Russo-Turkish wars had been chronicled even before the nineteenth century added four more. to their number. By a curious anticipation of modern history, it was in. the Crimea that the two nations first came into contact. A quarter of a century after the capture of Constantinople, Mohammed II claimed tbe SU• zerainty of the Crim Tartars, whose prince was the ally of the ruler of ~oscow. The Russian merchants at Kaffa and Azov \Vere now brought into relations with the Turkish authorities, and their grievances occasioned the despatch of the first ~ussi.an em~assy to ConstaQtinople :n 1495· Other RussiaD>