THE BIOLOGY OF THE FIRST 1,000 DAYS 1. Oxidative Stress in Cancer, AIDS, and Neurodegenerative Diseases, edited by Luc Montagnier, René Olivier, and Catherine Pasquier 2. Understanding the Process of Aging: The Roles of Mitochondria, Free Radicals, and Antioxidants, edited by Enrique Cadenas and Lester Packer 3. Redox Regulation of Cell Signaling and Its Clinical Application, edited by Lester Packer and Junji Yodoi 4. Antioxidants in Diabetes Management, edited by Lester Packer, Peter Rösen, Hans J. Tritschler, George L. King, and Angelo Azzi 5. Free Radicals in Brain Pathophysiology, edited by Giuseppe Poli, Enrique Cadenas, and Lester Packer 6. Nutraceuticals in Health and Disease Prevention, edited by Klaus Krämer, Peter-Paul Hoppe, and Lester Packer 7. Environmental Stressors in Health and Disease, edited by Jürgen Fuchs and Lester Packer 8. Handbook of Antioxidants: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Enrique Cadenas and Lester Packer 9. Flavonoids in Health and Disease: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, edited by Catherine A. Rice-Evans and Lester Packer 10. Redox–Genome Interactions in Health and Disease, edited by Jürgen Fuchs, Maurizio Podda, and Lester Packer 11. Thiamine: Catalytic Mechanisms in Normal and Disease States, edited by Frank Jordan and Mulchand S. Patel 12. Phytochemicals in Health and Disease, edited by Yongping Bao and Roger Fenwick 13. Carotenoids in Health and Disease, edited by Norman I. Krinsky, Susan T. Mayne, and Helmut Sies 14. Herbal and Traditional Medicine: Molecular Aspects of Health, edited by Lester Packer, Choon Nam Ong, and Barry Halliwell 15. Nutrients and Cell Signaling, edited by Janos Zempleni and Krishnamurti Dakshinamurti 16. Mitochondria in Health and Disease, edited by Carolyn D. Berdanier 17. Nutrigenomics, edited by Gerald Rimbach, Jürgen Fuchs, and Lester Packer 18. Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Health, edited by Young-Joon Surh and Lester Packer OXIDATIVE STRESS AND DISEASE Series Editors Lester Packer, PhD Enrique Cadenas, MD, PhD University of Southern California School of Pharmacy Los Angeles, California 19. Nitric Oxide, Cell Signaling, and Gene Expression, edited by Santiago Lamas and Enrique Cadenas 20. Resveratrol in Health and Disease, edited by Bharat B. Aggarwal and Shishir Shishodia 21. Oxidative Stress and Age-Related Neurodegeneration, edited by Yuan Luo and Lester Packer 22. Molecular Interventions in Lifestyle-Related Diseases, edited by Midori Hiramatsu, Toshikazu Yoshikawa, and Lester Packer 23. Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Mechanisms in Obesity, Diabetes, and the Metabolic Syndrome, edited by Lester Packer and Helmut Sies 24. Lipoic Acid: Energy Production, Antioxidant Activity and Health Effects, edited by Mulchand S. Patel and Lester Packer 25. Dietary Modulation of Cell Signaling Pathways, edited by Young-Joon Surh, Zigang Dong, Enrique Cadenas, and Lester Packer 26. Micronutrients and Brain Health, edited by Lester Packer, Helmut Sies, Manfred Eggersdorfer, and Enrique Cadenas 27. Adipose Tissue and Inflammation, edited by Atif B. Awad and Peter G. Bradford 28. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects, Second Edition, edited by Iris F. F. Benzie and Sissi Wachtel-Galor 29. Inflammation, Lifestyle and Chronic Diseases: The Silent Link, edited by Bharat B. Aggarwal, Sunil Krishnan, and Sushovan Guha 30. Flavonoids and Related Compounds: Bioavailability and Function, edited by Jeremy P. E. Spencer and Alan Crozier 31. Mitochondrial Signaling in Health and Disease, edited by Sten Orrenius, Lester Packer, and Enrique Cadenas 32. Vitamin D: Oxidative Stress, Immunity, and Aging, edited by Adrian F. Gombart 33. Carotenoids and Vitamin A in Translational Medicine, edited by Olaf Sommerburg, Werner Siems, and Klaus Kraemer 34. Hormesis in Health and Disease, edited by Suresh I. S. Rattan and Éric Le Bourg 35. Liver Metabolism and Fatty Liver Disease, edited by Oren Tirosh 36. Nutrition and Epigenetics, edited by Emily Ho and Frederick Domann 37. Lipid Oxidation in Health and Disease, edited by Corinne M. Spickett and Henry Jay Forman 38. Diversity of Selenium Functions in Health and Disease, edited by Regina Brigelius-Flohé and Helmut Sies 39. Mitochondria in Liver Disease, edited by Derick Han and Neil Kaplowitz 40. Fetal and Early Postnatal Programming and its Influence on Adult Health, edited by Mulchand S. Patel and Jens H. Nielsen 41. Biomedical Application of Nanoparticles, edited by Bertrand Rihn 42. The Biology of the First 1,000 Days, edited by Crystal D. Karakochuk, Kyly C. Whitfield, Tim J. Green, and Klaus Kraemer THE BIOLOGY OF THE FIRST 1,000 DAYS EDITED BY CRYSTAL D. KARAKOCHUK, KYLY C. WHITFIELD, TIM J. GREEN, AND KLAUS KRAEMER 1,000 Days ® is a registered trademark of 1,000 Days, a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. The 1,000 Days mark is used with permission from 1,000 Days. CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-5679-2 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. The Open Access version of this book, available at www.taylorfrancis.com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives 4.0 license. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data Names: Karakochuk, Crystal D., editor. | Whitfield, Kyly C., editor. | Green, Tim J., 1967- editor. | Kraemer, Klaus, 1960- editor. Title: The biology of the first 1,000 days / [edited by] Crystal D. Karakochuk, Kyly C. Whitfield, Tim J. Green, and Klaus Kraemer. Other titles: Biology of the first thousand days | Oxidative stress and disease ; 42. Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, 2018. | Series: Oxidative stress and disease; 42 | Includes bibliographical references. Identifiers: LCCN 2017013475 | ISBN 9781498756792 (hardback : alk. paper) Subjects: | MESH: Pregnancy--physiology | Pregnancy Trimester, First--physiology | Maternal Nutritional Physiological Phenomena | Fetal Development | Nutritional Requirements | Pregnancy Complications--etiology | Pregnancy Complications-- prevention & control Classification: LCC RG525 | NLM WQ 200.1 | DDC 618.2--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017013475 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com vii Contents Series Preface ......................................................................................................... xiii Preface...................................................................................................................... xv Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................xvii Editors .....................................................................................................................xix Contributors ............................................................................................................xxi Section i introduction Chapter 1 The Importance of the First 1,000 Days: An Epidemiological Perspective............................................................................................3 Christine M. McDonald and Andrew L. Thorne-Lyman Section ii What is normal Growth? Chapter 2 World Health Organization Child Growth Standards ........................ 17 Mercedes de Onis Section iii nutritional Requirements in the Life Stages Chapter 3 Nutrient Requirements and Recommendations during Pregnancy .... 35 Magali Leyvraz and Lynnette M. Neufeld Chapter 4 Nutrient Requirements during Lactation ........................................... 53 Victoria Hall Moran Chapter 5 Nutrient Requirements of Infants and Young Children ..................... 75 Minghua Tang, Kathryn G. Dewey, and Nancy F. Krebs viii Contents Section iV endocrinology in the Regulation of Growth Chapter 6 Hormonal Regulation during Lactation and Human Milk Production .......................................................................................... 89 William R. Crowley Chapter 7 Thyroid Function and Growth: The Mechanisms of Iodine ............ 105 Jessica Farebrother and Fabian Rohner Section V Adverse Pregnancy and Birth outcomes (Pathophysiology and consequences) Chapter 8 Neural Tube Defects: Mechanisms of Folate ................................... 123 Anne M. Molloy Chapter 9 Cleft Lip and Palate .......................................................................... 137 Eman Allam, Ahmed Ghoneima, and Katherine Kula Chapter 10 Obesity and Gestational Diabetes .................................................... 145 Maria Farren and Michael J. Turner Chapter 11 Nutrition and Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy ....................... 155 Antonia W. Shand and Tim J. Green Chapter 12 Low Birth Weight and Small for Gestational Age in the Context of 1,000 Days.................................................................................... 171 Amira M. Khan, Bianca Carducci, and Zulfiqar A. Bhutta Section Vi Pathophysiology and nutrition Requirements in child Malnutrition Chapter 13 Acute Malnutrition ........................................................................... 191 André Briend ix Contents Chapter 14 Management of Acute Malnutrition in Infants under 6 Months of Age ...............................................................................................207 Marko Kerac and Marie McGrath Chapter 15 Chronic Malnutrition........................................................................ 221 Saskia de Pee Chapter 16 Nutritional Regulation of the Growth Plate ..................................... 237 Julian C. Lui Section Vii Body composition Chapter 17 Gestational Weight Gain and Body Composition in Pregnant and Postpartum Women ................................................................... 255 Elisabet Forsum Chapter 18 Body Composition Changes from Infancy to Young Childhood ..... 269 Daniel J. Hoffman and Pamela L. Barrios Section Viii the Gut Microbiome Chapter 19 Early Life Gut Microbiome .............................................................. 289 Christopher J. Stewart and Stephen P. Cummings Chapter 20 Impact of Different Exposures, Including Environmental Enteropathies, on Gut Flora and Integrity........................................ 303 Fayrouz A. Sakr Ashour Section iX effects of early Life exposures and nutrition Chapter 21 Effects of Early Diet on Childhood Allergy .................................... 323 Merryn Netting and Maria Makrides x Contents Chapter 22 Epigenetics, Nutrition, and Infant Health......................................... 335 Philip T. James, Matt J. Silver, and Andrew M. Prentice Chapter 23 Fetal Origins of Obesity, Cardiovascular Disease, and Type 2 Diabetes ............................................................................................ 355 Herculina Salome Kruger and Naomi S. Levitt Section X effective interventions during the First 1,000 Days Chapter 24 Effectiveness of Nutrition-Specific Interventions in Pregnancy and Early Childhood ........................................................................ 371 Rebecca Heidkamp, Adrienne Clermont, and Robert E. Black Chapter 25 Nutrition-Sensitive Interventions for the First 1,000 Days .............. 389 Jessica Fanzo and Haley Swartz Chapter 26 Global Progress in the Scaling Up Nutrition (SUN) Movement ......409 Tom Arnold Section Xi Before and Beyond the First 1,000 Days Chapter 27 A Role for Preconception Nutrition ................................................. 423 Taylor Marie Snyder, Homero Martinez, Sara Wuehler, and Luz Maria De-Regil Chapter 28 Interpregnancy Intervals and Birth Spacing .................................... 439 Amanda Wendt and Usha Ramakrishnan Chapter 29 Adolescent Nutrition: A Critical Opportunity for Intervention ....... 457 Emily Mates and Anne Bush xi Contents Section Xii Discovery Research Chapter 30 Metabolomics and Proteomics: Methodological Advances to Increase Our Knowledge of Biology during the First 1,000 Days ... 473 Richard D. Semba and Marta Gonzalez-Freire Index ...................................................................................................................... 485 xiii Series Preface OXIDATIVE STRESS IN HEALTH AND DISEASE Oxidative stress is an underlying factor in health and disease. In this series of books the importance of oxidative stress and disease associated with cell and organ sys- tems of the body is highlighted by exploring the scientific evidence and the clinical applications of this knowledge. This series is intended for researchers in the bio- medical sciences and clinicians and all persons with interest in the health sciences. The potential of such knowledge for healthy development, healthy aging, and disease prevention warrants further knowledge about how oxidants and antioxidants modu- late cell and tissue function. Crystal D. Karakochuk, Kyly C. Whitfield, Tim J. Green, and Klaus Kraemer are to be congratulated for producing this very excellent and timely book, The Biology of the First 1,000 Days , in the ever-growing field of importance of early nutrition to human health. Lester Packer Enrique Cadenas xv Preface The first 1,000 days, from conception to 2 years of age, is a critical window of growth and development. Exposures to dietary, environmental, hormonal, and other stress- ors during this period have been associated with an increased risk of adverse health outcomes. Researchers using cell culture, animal models, and humans have identi- fied this time as a period of rapid physiological change and plasticity with significant potential for lasting effects. As such, interventions during the first 1,000 days will have the greatest impact on outcomes, particularly in low- and middle-income coun- tries where the need is greatest. To date, there is no single resource that compiles our knowledge of the biology of the first 1,000 days. Our knowledge and understanding of the biology behind the first 1,000 days is still limited. This greater understanding is helping us inform effective nutrition policy and programming. The strength of this book lies in its cross-disciplinary nature that encompasses the full range of human biology, provid- ing a more holistic perspective during this critical time frame. Moreover, we have broadened the scope and included important periods before and after the 1,000 days. We have designed this book as a comprehensive resource for those involved in global health and nutrition policy, strategy, programming, or research. This book will also be a resource for students learning about nutrition and health across the 1,000 days. The book includes an exceptional group of contributors who are experts in their given fields. As biology underlies the core of each discussion, it allows the readers to answer the what and why, and, we hope, the how for new discovery research and more effective interventions. Each chapter in this volume provides insight into a specific life stage, disease state, nutrient, and stressor in the first 1,000 days. As such, each chapter can be read independently, providing a comprehensive overview of that subject. However, there is continuity between chapters allowing this collection of chapters to be read cover to cover. The first chapters set the stage, providing a succinct resource to understand the well-established biological mechanisms that underlie growth regulation and nutrient recommendations throughout the first 1,000 days. The next chapters move on to the evidence behind nutrition-specific and nutrition-sensitive interventions to combat adverse outcomes and disease states in the first 1,000 days. This book also features emerging research areas, such as the gut microbiome, environmental enteric dysfunction, and the role of epigenetics in health and development. The final chapter pushes the boundaries of discovery research, exploring novel areas such as proteomics and metabolomics, and how insults such as environmental enteric dys- function affect metabolism in the first 1,000 days. xvi Preface We approached this book with the ambition to shed more light on the biology dur- ing 1,000 days, but there was also a need to put the biology into a broader context of nutrition and health. There are still many gaps in our understanding of the biology of the first 1,000 days. It is only by bridging this knowledge gap through research that we can inform effective interventions to improve outcomes during the first 1,000 days. Crystal D. Karakochuk Kyly C. Whitfield Tim J. Green Klaus Kraemer xvii Acknowledgments We extend our sincere thanks to the contributing authors. We are grateful for your dedication to this project and it was an honor to work with each of you. We owe special thanks to Susie Lunt and Sandra Elias for their editorial assistance. Last, we thank Chuck Crumly and Jennifer Blaise for their support and leadership in the creation of this landmark publication. xix Editors Crystal D. Karakochuk, PhD, RD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Food, Nutrition, and Health at the University of British Columbia, and an investigator in Healthy Starts at BC Children’s Hospital, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. She has worked internationally as a nutritionist for the United Nations World Food Programme (Rwanda, Malawi, Ethiopia, and Rome) and UNICEF (New York and Timor-Leste). Her research focuses on anemia, nutritional biomarkers (namely, iron and zinc), the effect of inflammation on nutritional biomarkers, and genetic hemo- globinopathies and blood disorders (e.g., sickle cell). Kyly C. Whitfield, PhD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Human Nutrition at Mount Saint Vincent University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Her research focuses on identifying culturally appropriate public health interven- tions to combat micronutrient deficiencies in low-resource settings, particularly among lactating mothers and their infants. Her current work explores fortification to address thiamin deficiency among breastfed infants in Southeast Asia. She is also interested in exploring the long-term effects of infant feeding behaviors on disease risk later in life. Tim J. Green, PhD, is a principal nutritionist in the Healthy Mothers, Babies, and Children Theme at the South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, and an affiliate professor in the Discipline of Paediatrics at the University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia. His research focuses on micronutrients in prepregnancy, preg- nancy, lactation, and early life with studies conducted in Canada, Oceania, Asia, and Africa. His group seeks to identify micronutrient deficiencies through nutrition surveys, better define micronutrient requirements and pregnancy outcomes in these groups through randomized control studies, and develop sustainable strategies to improve micronutrient status. Klaus Kraemer, PhD, is the managing director of the Sight and Life Foundation, a nutrition think tank working toward a world free from malnutrition, headquar- tered in Basel, Switzerland; and an adjunct associate professor in the Department of International Health of Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland. With over 30 years of experience in research and advocacy in the field of nutrition and health, he has developed an expertise in nutrition and safety of micronutrients, and translating discovery research into effective and tai- lored nutrition solutions at scale. He is a member of the Steering Committee of the Micronutrient Forum, Executive Committee of the Home Fortification Technical Advisory Group, Executive Board of the Mongolian Health Initiative, and a found- ing member of the Society for Implementation Science in Nutrition, among others.