1 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3 About Biomimicry.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................3 About Genius of Biome..........................................................................................................................................................................................................4 Life’s Principles.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................5 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................6 NORTHEAST DECIDUOUS FOREST................................................................................................................................................................................................6 THE CHALLENGES...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................7 HOW TO USE THIS REPORT..............................................................................................................................................................................................................8 HOW TO READ A STRATEGY PAGE................................................................................................................................................................................................9 NATURE’S STRATEGIES.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................10 SNOW & FROST.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................11 WATER SUPPLY VARIABILITY.............................................................................................................................................................................................20 SALINITY...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................28 POOR SOIL CONDITIONS...................................................................................................................................................................................................37 CLIMATE VARIABILITY..........................................................................................................................................................................................................46 HUMIDITY/HEAT.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................55 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................................................................................................................................................63 APPENDIX.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................64 REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................75 2 INTRODUCTION What is Biomimicry? When you face a complex challenge, who do you go to for advice? Your parents? A friend? What type of answers are we seeking and why are we asking these people, and not just anyone? When we seek advice, the logical solution is to consult those with experience. Those that have wisdom and have been around longer. Biomimicry does this with nature. Biomimicry as a practice asks, “how would nature solve my challenge?” and develops a solution based upon the biological strategies that emerges from the in-depth observation and research, interdisciplinary collaboration, as well as the use of Life’s Principles as guidelines and evaluation. As put so eloquently by the Biomimicry Institute; “Biomimicry is an approach to innovation that seeks sustainable solutions to human challenges by emulating nature’s time-tested patterns and strategies. The goal is to create products, processes, and policies—new ways of living—that are well-adapted to life on earth over the long haul. courtesy of wmasteros.co 3 What is a Genius of Biome Project? A Genius of Biome project is a research project designed to isolate a single biome and attempt to understand what kind of conditions life in the biome must endure. Conditions may overlap other biomes and there may also be conditions that are found nowhere else in the world. Further investigation into these conditions takes place once a set of primary operating conditions are established for the particular biome. Investigation into these conditions develops further into understanding how life has adapted to thrive in the particular biome under these conditions by researching organisms of the biome. An organismal list of contenders is narrowed down to true champions; organisms that have developed amazing strategies to not only survive the condition, but to thrive. The organism's strategy of survival is researched once these champion organisms are identified. A mechanism of action for the particular organism is pinpointed and marked for further study. It is these mechanisms of action that allow us to understand how the organism has adapted to the particular operating condition being studied. It is then possible to develop an abstracted design principle from this mechanism, and ultimately, a set of application ideas for use in human design. Figure 1. Biomes of the World Figure 2. Biomes within North America 4 What are Life’s Principles (LPs)? Life’s Principles are design lessons from nature. Based on the recognition that Life on Earth is interconnected and interdependent, and subject to the same set of operating conditions, Life has evolved a set of strategies that have sustained over 3.8 billion years. Life’s Principles represent these overarching patterns found amongst the species surviving and thriving on Earth. Life integrates and optimizes these strategies to create conditions conducive to life. By learning from these deep design lessons, we can model innovative strategies, measure our designs against these sustainable benchmarks, and allow ourselves to be mentored by nature’s genius using Life’s Principles as our aspirational ideals. 5 Executive Summary A biome is defined as large land ecosystems. The World Wildlife Fund defines an ecoregion as a "large unit of land or water containing a geographically distinct assemblage of species, natural communities, and environmental conditions". With Deciduous meaning “Falling off at maturity,” Deciduous forests are categorized as a region where there are four seasons throughout the year (Summer, Fall, Winter, Spring). This is caused by warm and cold air masses from the ocean and wind from the west thus, the trees and other vegetation lose their leaves during the winter and regrow new leaves the next spring. The Northeast United States contains the Appalachian Mountains which stretch from Maine in the Northeast region down to Alabama in the Southeast region. Several different mountain ranges make up the Appalachian Mountains, including the Allegheny Mountains, the Pocono Mountains, the Adirondack Mountains, and the Catskills. Within these mountain ranges are valleys, rivers, lakes, ponds and streams. Deciduous forests have very fertile soil due to the bacteria and fungi that decompose plant life. They aid in growth of a large variety of tree species which include broadleaf trees such as white oak, northern red oak, sugar maple, American beeche, magnolia, sweet gum, spruce, fir, hickories, tulip poplar, basswood, eastern hemlock and pine trees as well as plants such as lady fern, northern arrowwood, Lichen, wildflowers, pecans, and carpet moss. With varying elevations, the temperature ranges from -30° Celsius (-22°F) to 30°Celsius (86°F) with an average of 10°Celcius (50°F). This provides precipitation of an average 75 to 150 centimeters (30-60 inches) per year. Severe wind, ice and snow storms are disturbances in these deciduous forests. The region also supports a great range of animal biodiversity. There are numerous butterfly species, slugs, frogs, turtles, and salamanders.. Birds such as hawks, cardinals, owls, woodpeckers, bald eagles, geese, ducks, swans are also found in this biome. The Northeastern Coastal Forests include part of Delaware Bay, a large-scale migratory corridor and feeding area for shorebirds and songbirds, where birds feed on horseshoe crab eggs. Common deciduous forest mammals include mice, red foxes, chipmunks, ground squirrels, badgers, black bears, silver-haired bats, raccoons, possums, weasels, porcupines, cottontail rabbits, gray squirrels, skunks, flying squirrels, white-tailed deer, coyotes and bobcats. Several of these mammals have opted on hibernation and food storage to get them through the harsh winter months. 6 CLIMATE CONDITIONS ● Located in the mid-latitude areas between the polar regions and the tropics. The Northeast region has broad valleys, rolling hills, and low mountains. ● Exposed to warm and cold air masses, which cause this area to have four seasons. ● Temperature varies widely from season to season with long cold winters and short hot, wet summers. The average yearly temperature is about 10°C. ● 750 to 1,500 mm of precipitation spread fairly evenly throughout the year. A temperate forest usually requires at least 20 inches (51 centimeters) of precipitation (rain, snow, or sleet) each year. Average between 30 to 60 inches (76 to 152 centimeters). ● Water resources include rivers, streams, springs, lakes and ponds. ● Exposure to severe wind storms such as blizzards, nor’easters, and hurricanes. ● Ice Storms - caused by rain falling through sub-freezing air masses close to the ground; those air masses supercool the raindrops, which freeze on impact. KEY BIOME CHALLENGES 1. Snow/Frost- Annual average snowfall distribution in the area is between 25-50 inches 2. Water supply variability-Water Cycle changes and loss (increased precipitation vs. decreased snowpack). Limited availability of liquid water during winter months. 3. Salinity- Close proximity to ocean and a brackish water ways 4. Poor soil conditions- nutrient depleted and rocky soils distributed throughout the area 5. Climate variability Coping with temperature extremes (as low as 5 degrees fahrenheit in winter and as high as 100 degrees fahrenheit in summer) 6. Humidity- Can be above 85% with triple digit temperatures 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7 How to Use this Report As the title of this research report suggests “Genius of Place - Northeastern Temperate Broadleaf & Mixed Forests,” is a collective Biomimicry-based research study intended to inform the reader to better understand some of the critical biological, evolutionary, and scientific constructs of this highly unique and diverse ecosystem. The report findings also include related assessments of the Biome’s various historical developments, biotic and abiotic stresses, geographical contexts, and other important background information. The focal point of this project was to investigate a core of the most significant survival challenges impacting the Biome from both a short and long-term perspective; and perform a detailed evaluation of native biological organisms whose systemic functionality and evolved behaviors are uniquely designed to manage these pressing structural and environmental challenges. Subsequently, we’ve cataloged a compendium of associated, preliminary ideas and problem-solving frameworks that could both sustain and/or enhance the overall health of the Biome. Our hope is that the reader comes away with: · An introductory-level of knowledge around the Northeastern Temperate Broadleaf & Mixed Forests Biome · A deeper appreciation of nature’s brilliance and diversity, and the importance of connecting to it on a personal level · A fundamental awareness of the Biomimicry discipline and its capacity for producing an almost unlimited expanse of nature-inspired innovation · A preview of the disruptive potential of Biomimetic approaches to multidisciplinary design processes and innovative discovery This report is comprised of the following sections; we suggest reading the report in sequential order for the fullest impact. However, some readers prefer to start with the Executive Summary and read through the report to ascertain if the material and content support our findings – which is also an acceptable review method. Introduction: The first section of the report is meant to provide the reader with a basic understanding of the field of Biomimicry, it’s academic and practical underpinnings related to this Genius of Biome research project, and how it’s guiding tenets of natural application (design lessons from nature called Life’s Principles) are applied to all of our design innovation, evaluation, measurement, and problem-solving activities. Executive Summary: This section encapsulates the specific aspects of the Biome ecosystem being researched; biological composition, climate conditions, physical and topographical features, animal biodiversity, and other special factors. The Northeast Deciduous Forest: This section offers a closer inspection of the unique attributes, key operating conditions, evolution and progression characteristics, and related natural properties of this important Biome Challenges: This section captures the research team’s assessment of six (6) of the most pressing physical, environmental, and man-made threats to future ecosystem health and maintenance, as well as ten (10) identified natural functionalities we believe essential to preserving the forest’s long-term endurance and support. These are crucial challenges we strongly believe need to be addressed, via an analytical, Biomimicry-based methodology Nature’s Strategies: This part of the report showcases a myriad of team created, nature-inspired solutions aiming to solve for issues defined within the six (6) primary Biome Challenges identified. The purpose of the design brainstorm was to replicate a desired natural functionality currently found in the ecosystem via the Biomimicry Abstracted Design Principle (ADP) application method; the objective is to allow the reader to browse the concepts from the perspective of their functional performance potential and aspiration - rather than aesthetics and engineering requirements. Acknowledgements: The SE4SONS project research team wishes to acknowledge all of the various creators, professional experts, scientists, biologists, Biomimicry student peers, and other sources of knowledge we’ve learned from, and whose contributions have helped define and inform our project report. We declare our content, findings and conceptual designs to be factual, true, genuine, and in many cases, original. Appendix: Our Appendix contains supplementary material that we believe provides additional and comprehensive content, selected to clarify certain elements of the research project deemed too extensive and/or secondary to the report’s purpose References: 8 The cited references included can lead you to additional information that may help you better understand the subject matter and consult important studies related to the project report. Where articles and sources were accessed from the Web, we’ve provided the hyperlink to the online article for further investigation. How to Read a Strategy Page Each strategy page is formatted identically for easy referencing. There are four organisms and thus four strategies per challenge, for a total of twenty-four strategies The first page info cites the organism’s name, natural history, organism images, biological strategy and mechanism, and Abstracted Design Principle (ADP). The second page includes the ADP illustration, application ideas, application illustration, and most relevant Life’s Principles. 9 10 Northeast Deciduous Forest Snow & Frost Eastern White Pine ( Pinus strobus ) One of the many adaptation trees have to aid in their winter survival is their bark. Some trees have lighter colored and smoother textured bark like the Paper Birch ( Betula payrifera ) while others have very dark colored and rough-textured like Eastern White Pine. Most trees in the northeastern forests skew towards the darker end of the color spectrum, and have deeply furrowed, almost scaley bark. The main purpose of the bark is to protect the tree from freezing and cracking during severe cold. While the bark provides some thermal insulation for the tree, it's actually protecting the tree from the sun’s heat. The differential heating and cooling of the tree from inside to outside causes expansion and contractions which can cause the tree to crack. Similarly at night when the tree is exposed to cold winds it can cool and contract much more rapidly than the interior of the tree, leading to eventual splitting of the protective bark layer. The Eastern White Pine bark helps protect the tree against this danger of cracking. The darker bark warms up faster than white bark, but it also sheds heat faster. The deeply furrowed and scaled bark acts similar to a radiator to diffuse heat before it can warm the interior of the tree. This curly, furrowed, or scaly texture to the bark is made of many thinner layers that expand or contract with heat, cold, and moisture. When the bark absorbs moisture, it acts as an impact absorber minimizing damage from any nearby falling trees and limbs during snow and ice storms as well. Biological Strategy Thickly furrowed and scale-like exterior, comprised of multiple expanding and contracting thinner layers, allow for optimal dissipation of heat to protect from cracking and severe impacts. Mechanism The shaped channels and texture of the bark acts like a radiator, allowing the warm air to dissipate before the temperature differences cause failure. Abstracted Design Principle (ADP) Dark colored exterior surface attracts solar radiation and heat while deeply furrowed and ridged exterior surface texture aids in heat dissipation through increased air circulation, preventing cracking from internal/external temperature difference. 11 ADP Illustration Application Ideas 1.Prevent thermal cracking of road and sidewalk paving 2.Prevent overheating in electrical equipment Life’s Principles 12 Northeast Deciduous Forest Snow & Frost Goldenrod Gall Fly ( Eurosta solidaginis ) The goldenrod gall fly (Eurosta solidaginis) is a common and widely distributed insect found coast to coast in the central part of North America. The adult flies emerge from their galls in late spring. In Manitoba they emerge mid to late May, or even early June. Adult gall flies are about 5 mm in size. They are poor fliers and so do most of their travel by walking. Adult flies live for only 2 weeks which in this time they mate and the female lays its eggs. They deposit them at the tip of the emerging goldenrod stem. One larva is placed per gall. These insects may experience extreme dry and cold conditions in winter. The upregulation aquaporins and aquaglyceroporins of larvae play a role in cellular freeze tolerance. Aquaporin is upregulated in response to desiccation, which would facilitate movement of water and glycerol during freezing and thawing conditions. Biological Strategy Cold temperatures stimulates the fly larva to produce large concentrations of glycerol, as an intra-cellular anti-freeze. The larva allows most of its body tissues to freeze, but Acetylated triacylglycerols (acTAGs), a fat, keeps the inside of its cells liquid. By increasing their Tc through the synthesis of ice- nucleating agents that function to inhibit supercooling, they synthesize high levels of the cryoprotectants glycerol, sorbitol, and trehalose. Cryoprotectants may also stabilize proteins and cell membranes to prevent injury during freezing and thawing. Glycerol and sorbitol change the shape of the ice crystals, "blunting" them and making freezing less damaging. Finally, penetrating cryoprotectants, such as glycerol, enter cells and raise the osmotic pressure, thus reducing the amount of cellular dehydration caused by the freeze concentration. Mechanism Transmembrane channels, referred to as aquaporins, protect goldenrod gall fly from freezing in the winter by rapidly redistributing water out of cell 13 Abstracted Design Principle (ADP) A filtration system using highly specific cylindrical shaped narrow channels to extract a certain element/item in one direction. ADP Illustration Application Ideas 1. Large Aquarium/Aquaculture Water Filtration 2. Milling of Grains Life’s Principles ● Do Chemistry in Water ● Incorporate Diversity ● Use Feedback Loops 14 Northeast Deciduous Forest Snow & Frost Upis Beetle (Upis ceramboides) Cold temperatures stimulates the fly larva to produce large concentrations of glycerol, as an intra-cellular anti-freeze. The larva allows most of its body tissues to freeze, but Acetylated triacylglycerols (acTAGs), a fat, keeps the inside of its cells liquid. By increasing their Tc through the synthesis of ice- nucleating agents that function to inhibit supercooling, they synthesize high levels of the cryoprotectants glycerol, sorbitol, and trehalose. Cryoprotectants may also stabilize proteins and cell membranes to prevent injury during freezing and thawing. Glycerol and sorbitol change the shape of the ice crystals, "blunting" them and making freezing less damaging. Finally, penetrating cryoprotectants, such as glycerol, enter cells and raise the osmotic pressure, thus reducing the amount of cellular dehydration caused by the freeze concentration. Biological Strategy Upis beetles are able to survive frost conditions via their ability to harness the production of antifreeze and glycoproteins in their bodies, preventing ice crystal formation in their blood and keeping body temperatures below freezing point. Mechanism A unique molecule called xylomannan, is composed of a sugar and a fatty acid within the beetle’s cells. It’s activated when freezing temperatures occur, acting as a liquid antifreeze and keeping ice crystals from penetrating the insects’ cells. Abstracted Design Principle (ADP) Changes in external thermal conditions trigger sensory receptors that cause self-contained microscopic units to activate an inert form of chemical antifreeze that floods cellular compartments, thereby guarding against the effects of damaging ice crystal formation. 15 Applications: 1. Airplane wings/exterior to prevent icing 2. Cooling & refrigeration system components (See illustration above) Life’s Principles -Adapt to Changing Conditions -Be Resource Efficient (Material and Energy) -Evolve to Survive 16 Northeast Deciduous Forest Snow & Frost Wood frog (Lithobates sylvaticus) The wood frog can be found throughout Canada, Alaska, and the North Eastern United States, down to the Southern Appalachian mountains. It’s a rather small frog, ranging in size from 2 to 3 inches. Females are typically larger than the males. The wood frog is light brown to green, with dark-brown to black markings on its face, resembling a mask. Biological Strategy: Wood frogs are known as ectotherms and are unable to regulate their own body temperature, instead relying on the environment to warm themselves. This is not a temperature regulation system that functions very well in cold climates. Because of this, wood frogs have evolved a strategy to survive freezing winters by simply freezing solid until climate conditions improve. Mechanism: Compounds such as sugar, in the blood of wood frogs, protect them from freezing temperatures by affecting how water freezes in the body. Excess glucose in the extracellular matrix of the frog prevents sharp ice crystal formation as the water freezes, which world normally puncture cell walls and lead to the death of the frog. 17 ADP : Molecular compound which binds to water molecule and inhibits the formation of ice crystals during the transition of water from a liquid to a solid Application Ideas: 1. Sidewalk and road coating to prevent freezing 2. Compound for cryogenic medicine and space travel Life's Principles: -Use Life Friendly Chemistry -Be Resource Efficient 18 19 Northeast Deciduous Forest Water Supply Variability Red Maple ( Acer rubrum ) One of the many winter survival adaptations for broad-leaved trees is the famous leaf drop. Not only do leaves add considerable mass and increase wind resistance (a liability for the tree during snow, sleet, and ice storms ), they also add considerably more surface area for the cold dry winds to remove moisture from the tree via evaporation. As this water would evaporate from the leaves, more water would then need to be drawn up the trunk to replace it. Instead, broad-leafed trees like the Red Maple prepare for winter by forming an abscission layer of cells at the base of each leaf stem. This causes the leaf to drop from the branch and creates a seal, preventing water vapor loss. This adaptation conserves precious water reserves in the tree during winter months when liquid water is not always available, thus avoiding the danger of dehydration. Biological Strategy To conserve water during winter, the tree forms an abscission at the leaf’s stem where it meets the branch. This effectively detaches the leaf from branch and seals off where the stem was attached to prevent loss of moisture through evaporation. Mechanism Triggered as daily solar exposure declines and photosynthetic production decreases, the tree prepares for the harsh winter (and the potential for dehydration) by removing non-essential amendages, lessening the demand for water and limiting loss of water due to evaporation. Abstracted Design Principle (ADP) Before shedding non-essential components, resources are transferred to storage. Once shed, overall surface area is decreased, limiting potential loss of water via evaporation. 20