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Interferometry Research and Applications in Science and Technology Edited by Ivan Padron INTERFEROMETRY – RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Edited by Ivan Padron Interferometry - Research and Applications in Science and Technology http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/2635 Edited by Ivan Padron Contributors Cruz Meneses-Fabian, Gustavo Rodriguez-Zurita, Noel-Ivan Toto-Arellano, Amalia Martínez-García, David Ignacio Serrano García, Sara Tofighi, Marzieh Bathaee, Ali Reza Bahrampour, Farnaz Farman, Cheng Chih Hsu, Luis Esteban- Hernández, Miguel Sánchez Gómez, Wee Keat Chong, Xiang Li, Yeng Chai Soh, Morel, Fotis Kossivas, Andreas Kyprianou, Charalambos Doumanidis, Takeshi Tsujimura, Michał Arabski, Sławomir Wąsik, Zuzanna Drulis-Kawa, Hubert Grześkiewicz, Jerzy Gubernator, Wiesław Kaca, Xiaoji Zhou, Xuguang Yue, Makarova, Valery Kulichikhin, Akira Kimachi, Levon Mouradian, Aram Zeytunyan, Garegin Yesayan, Tae Hyun Baek, Uriel Rivera-Ortega, Akos Ledeczi, Sandor Szilvasi, Janos Sallai, Peter Volgyesi, Miklos Maroti, Graciela Hernández-Orduña, Masanori Ota, Tatsuro Inage, Shinsuke Udagawa, Kazuo Maeno, Babu Varghese, Wiendelt Steenbergen © The Editor(s) and the Author(s) 2012 The moral rights of the and the author(s) have been asserted. 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Printed in Croatia Legal deposit, Croatia: National and University Library in Zagreb Additional hard and PDF copies can be obtained from orders@intechopen.com Interferometry - Research and Applications in Science and Technology Edited by Ivan Padron p. cm. ISBN 978-953-51-0403-2 eBook (PDF) ISBN 978-953-51-4985-9 Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI) Interested in publishing with us? Contact book.department@intechopen.com Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected. For more information visit www.intechopen.com 4,000+ Open access books available 151 Countries delivered to 12.2% Contributors from top 500 universities Our authors are among the Top 1% most cited scientists 116,000+ International authors and editors 120M+ Downloads We are IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open Access books Built by scientists, for scientists Meet the editor Ivan Padron was born in Camajuani, Cuba in 1970. He received his bachelor degree in Physics from the Univer- sity of Havana in 1993, and his Ph. D in Applied Physics from New Jersey Institute of Technology in 2010. His research has been directed towards diaphragm based Fabry-Perot interferometric sensors. His critical thinking and enterprising personality where acknowledged in two U.S. patents and one patent application, and offered him the opportu- nity of publish his work in varies peer-reviewed scientific journals, partici- pates in numerous international conferences and to serve as a peer review- er of the IEEE Sensor Journal. He is a member of the American Physical Society and IEEE Professional Association. His research interests include optical sensors and the application of physics to life sciences and medicine. Contents Preface XIII Part 1 Interferometry Methods and Research 1 Chapter 1 Optical Fiber Interferometers and Their Applications 3 Ali Reza Bahrampour, Sara Tofighi, Marzieh Bathaee and Farnaz Farman Chapter 2 The Applications of the Heterodyne Interferoemetry 31 Cheng-Chih Hsu Chapter 3 One-Shot Phase-Shifting Interferometry with Phase-Gratings and Modulation of Polarization Using N≥4 Interferograms 65 Gustavo Rodríguez Zurita, Noel-Ivan Toto-Arellano and Cruz Meneses-Fabián Chapter 4 Phosphor-Based White Light Emitting Diode (LED) for Vertical Scanning Interferometry (VSI) 81 Wee Keat Chong, Xiang Li and Yeng Chai Soh Chapter 5 Similariton-Based Spectral Interferometry for Signal Analysis on Femtosecond Time Scale 99 Levon Mouradian, Aram Zeytunyan and Garegin Yesayan Chapter 6 Spectral Low Coherence Interferometry: A Complete Analysis of the Detection System and the Signal Processing 125 Eneas N. Morel and Jorge R. Torga Chapter 7 Speckle Interferometry for Displacement Measurement and Hybrid Stress Analysis 149 Tae Hyun Baek and Myung Soo Kim Chapter 8 Phase-Shifting Interferometry by Amplitude Modulation 171 Cruz Meneses-Fabian and Uriel Rivera-Ortega X Contents Chapter 9 N -Shots 2 N -Phase-Steps Binary Grating Interferometry 195 Cruz Meneses-Fabian, Gustavo Rodriguez-Zurita and Noel-Ivan Toto-Arellano Chapter 10 Path Length Resolved Dynamic Light Scattering Measurements with Suppressed Influence of Optical Properties Using Phase Modulated Low Coherence Interferometry 209 Babu Varghese and Wiendelt Steenbergen Chapter 11 Interferometric Measurement in Shock Tube Experiments 209 Masanori Ota, Shinsuke Udagawa, Tatsuro Inage and Kazuo Maeno Part 2 Recent Interferometry Applications 245 Chapter 12 Interferometry for Fusion Devices 247 Luis Esteban and Miguel Sánchez Chapter 13 Simultaneous Phase Shifting Shearing Interferometry for Measurement of Static and Dynamic Phase Objects 263 Noel-Ivan Toto-Arellano, David-Ignacio Serrano-García, Amalia Martínez-García and Gustavo Rodríguez-Zurita Chapter 14 Laser Interferometric Determination of Liposomes Diffusion Through Artificial Membranes 281 Michał Arabski, Sławomir Wąsik, Zuzanna Drulis-Kawa, Hubert Grześkiewicz, Jerzy Gubernator and Wiesław Kaca Chapter 15 Experimental π Phase-Shifts Observed in the Fourier Spectra of Phase Gratings and Applications in Simultaneous PSI 297 Noel-Ivan Toto-Arellano, Gustavo Rodríguez-Zurita, Amalia Martínez-García, David-Ignacio Serrano-García and María-Graciela Hernández-Orduña Chapter 16 Length Measurement for Optical Transmission Line Using Interferometry 315 Takeshi Tsujimura, Koichi Yoshida and Kuniaki Tanaka Chapter 17 High Order Momentum States by Light Wave Scattering 339 Xiaoji Zhou and Xuguang Yue Chapter 18 Thickness Measurement of Photoresist Thin Films Using Interferometry 359 Fotis Kossivas, Charalabos Doumanidis and Andreas Kyprianou Chapter 19 Real-Time Heterodyne Interferometry with Correlation Image Sensor 377 Akira Kimachi Contents XI Chapter 20 Application of Interferometry to Analysis of Polymer-Polymer and Polymer-Solvent Interactions 393 Veronica Makarova and Valery Kulichikhin Chapter 21 Interferometry in Wireless Sensor Networks 437 Sandor Szilvasi, Peter Volgyesi, Janos Sallai, Akos Ledeczi and Miklos Maroti Preface This book compiles recent studies on interferometry and its applications in science and technology. It is intended as an up-to-date reference of theoretical and experimental aspects of interferometry and their applications. The book is divided in two sections. The first one is an overview of different interferometry techniques and their general applications. Chapter 1 is concentrated on the classical field interferometry. This chapter describes and explains the structures of different type of fiber interferometers, and the standard methods for signal recovering. Chapter 2 is an overview of the heterodyne interferometry and its applications. It includes some of recent development techniques and a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the heterodyne interferometer. Chapter 3 describes the Phase-shifting interferometry through an experimental set-up for a polarizing two-window phase-grating common-path interferometer. The system is able to obtain n = ( N +1) interferograms with only one shot. Chapter 4 introduces vertical scanning interferometry and shows that the use of phosphor-based LED on vertical scanning interferometry affects the repeatability and accuracy of vertical scanning interferometry, especially repeatability. However, the undesired effects of phosphor-based white LED can be removed by applying a constraint on the input to existing reconstruction algorithm. In Chapter 5 is developed and implemented a similariton based self-referencing method of spectral interferometry for the complete characterization of femtosecond signal. The method is based on the similariton generation from the part of signal and its use as a reference for the interference with the signal in the spectrometer. Chapter 6 offers an overview of Low coherence interferometry including the Basis of Low Coherence Interferometry and Experimental configurations, covering aspects of the spectral domain low coherence Interferometry such as the interference signal, detection system, signal processing and parameter limits. Chapter 7 presents a reliable hybrid method for characterizing stress around the circular hole in a tensile-loaded steel plate. The method utilized only few micro-scale x-displacement data measured by speckle interferometry, in conjunction with phase shifting method using Fourier transform to calculate stress components and eventually stress concentration at an angle of 90 degrees. Chapter 8 is discusses the phenomenon of optical interference for two waves elliptically polarized, and demonstrates with a numerical analysis and a computer simulation X IV Preface the viability of a new method of phase-shifting based on the amplitude variation of two fields considered as the reference beams in a scheme of a three beam interferometer. In Chapter 9, based on the interference of two waves monochromatic and coherences, the phase shifting interferometry is studied and a method to reduce the number of captures needed is proposed on the basis of grating interferometry and modulation of linear polarization. Chapter 10 introduces a new bio-optical method “Path length resolved optical Doppler perfusion monitoring,” to determine path length distributions of multiple scattered light in static and dynamic turbid media using phase modulated coherence gated interferometry. Also, is presented the first path length resolved Doppler measurements of multiply scattered light from human skin. Chapter 11 describes two topics related to interferometric measurement in shock tube experiment. Laser Interferometry Computed Tomography technique is applied to the measurement of high-speed, unsteady and 3D flow field induced by discharging shock waves, and Laser Differential Interferometer is applied to velocity and density measurement in micro-scale shock tube. The second section is devoted to more specific interferometry applications including in chapter12 interferometry for magnetic fusion plasmas, followed by Measurement of Static and Dynamic Phase Objects using Simultaneous Phase Shifting Shearing Interferometry in chapter 13. Chapter 14 offers a biological application of laser interferometry in the Analysis of liposome diffusion. In chapter 15, theoretical and experimental evidences of π phase-shifts in the Fourier spectra of phase gratings and phase grids is presented, which are of considerable relevance when gratings or grids are used for interferometric applications, specifically in Phase shifting interferometry. Chapter 16 proposes a new switching method for in-service optical transmission lines that transfer live optical signals. The method uses optical fibers, instead of using electric apparatus to control the transmission speed. Chapter 17 introduces a novel method for testing large aspherical surfaces by subaperture stitching interferometry. Chapter 18 shows two methods of getting high order momentum states by resonant superradiant scattering and by a sequence of pulsed standing waves, corresponding to traveling wave scattering and standing wave scattering, respectively. Chapter 19 describes the thickness measurement of photoresist thin films using interferometry techniques. Chapter 20 presets a real-time 2-D HI technique based on the use of the correlation image sensor as a two-dimensional array of pixels, each of which simultaneously demodulate the amplitude and phase of incident heterodyne beams at an ordinary frame rate. Chapter 21 is an application of interferometry to analysis of polymer-polymer and polymer-solvent interactions. Chapter 21 describes the baseline approach of radio interferometry based localization and details the many developments that occurred since its introduction; including the mathematical foundation of the localization method and a method for tracking mobile nodes in Wireless Sensor Networks utilizing the phenomena of Doppler effects and radio interferometry. Preface X V The book has been made possible as the outcome of the outstanding work done by all authors and by the professional assistance of Publishing Process Manager, Ms. Petra Nenadic, during all phases of editing. Dr Ivan Padron New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA Part 1 Interferometry Methods and Research 1 Optical Fiber Interferometers and Their Applications Ali Reza Bahrampour, Sara Tofighi, Marzieh Bathaee and Farnaz Farman Sharif University of Technology Iran 1. Introduction Interference as a wave characteristic of the electromagnetic wave has many applications in science, technology and medicine (Grattan & Meggit, 1997; Wang et al., 2011). The fringe visibility of the first order interference experiments such as the famous double slit Young experiment and Michelson interferometer, is determined by the first order correlation function (Gerry & Knight, 2005). The first order interference is also called the field interference. In Hanbury-Brown and Twiss (HBT) experiment, fringes are due to the intensity interference and visibility is determined by the second order correlation function. (Brown & Twiss, 1956; Scully & Zubairy 2001). In quantum optics, nonlinear Lithography and quantum Lithography, interferometry based on higher order correlation function is of prime importance (Bentley & Boyd, 2004; Boto et al., 2000). However in all of these interferometries, the fringe pattern depends on the optical path difference (OPD) and feature of light source. This chapter is concentrated on the classical field interferometry. The fringe existence is a characteristic of spatial or temporal coherences between the two light beams. The phenomenon of interference of light is used in many high precision measuring systems and sensors. The optical path can be controlled by optical waveguides and optical fibers. The use of optical fibers allows making such devices extremely compact and economic. Among the lots of advantages of optical fibers is their ability to reduce the effects of wave front distortion by the atmospheric turbulence and compact beam-splitter and combiner. These abilities made optical fiber as a suitable medium for transportation of light in long baseline interferometers which are used for gravitational wave detection, intruder sensor, structural health monitoring and long length leak detection systems (Sacharov, 2001; Cahill, 2007; Cahill & Stokes, 2008; Jia et al., 2008; Mishra & Soni, 2011, Bahrampour et al., 2012). Other advantages that make optical fibers become useful elements in sensing technologies are high elongation sensitivity, fast response to internal or external defects such as temperature and tension, electromagnetic noise disturbance immunity, less power consumption and potential for large scale multiplexing (Higuera & Miguel, 2002). In this chapter the different structures of optical fibers which are important in fiber interferometry are taken into consideration. The structures of different types of fiber interferometers are described. The sensitivity of coherent light optical fiber interferometers is compared with those of the incoherent and white light optical fiber interferometers. The Interferometry – Research and Applications in Science and Technology 4 standard methods for signal recovering are explained. A brief discussion on the noise sources appears in this chapter. Due to the immunity of the optical fibers to the lightening and electromagnetic noise, optical fibers are suitable sensors for transient measurement in harsh environments such as current measurement in high voltage transformers (Grattan & Meggit, 1999). The optical fiber hydrophone systems are based on elasto-optic effect in optical fiber coil, which is installed in one arm of an optical fiber interferometer (OFI) (Freitas, 2011). The optical fiber interferometers can be employed as biochemical sensors (Gopel et al., 1991). The cooperation of optical fiber interferometry and Plasmon can improve the sensitivity of biosensors to one molecule detection system (De Vos et al., 2009). The mechanical quantities such as pressure, velocity, acceleration and displacement can be measured by optical fiber interferometers (Shizhuo et al., 2008). Among a lot of applications of optical fiber interferometers, only some applications such as linear and nonlinear photonic circuits and distributed optical fiber sensors are mentioned in this chapter. 2. Optical fibers structures 2.1 Standard fibers An optical fiber is a cylindrical structure that transports electromagnetic waves in the infrared or visible bands of electromagnetic spectrum. In practice optical fibers are highly flexible and transparent dielectric material. The optical fiber consists of three different layers. Core is the central region which is surrounded by the cladding. These two layers are protected by protective jacket. The core refractive index can be uniform or graded while the cladding index is typically uniform. For light guiding, it is necessary that the core index be greater than the cladding index. Most of the light energy propagates in the core and only a small fraction travels in the cladding. The cladding radius is so large that the jacket has no effect on the light propagation in the optical fiber structure. Depending on the dimensionless frequency � � �� ) � � ⁄ � ⁄ where � is the core radius, � is the wavelength of the light in free space, n co and n clad are the core and clad refractive indices respectively, optical fibers are divided into multimode ( � � � ) and single mode fibers ( �� ), where � � is cutoff frequency (Agrawal, 2007). The optical fibers whose core and cladding have very nearly the same refractive index are named weakly guiding fibers. The corresponding eigen value equation is simpler than the exact fiber characteristic equation. The notation �� introduces the weakly guiding modes. The fundamental mode �� is denoted by �� (Okamoto, 2006). The normalized propagation constant versus the dimensionless frequency is called the dispersion curve. Depending on the coupling and optical fiber physical parameters, bounded, radiation and evanescent modes can exist in an optical fiber. The total incident power can be transported by the bounded and radiation modes while evanescent modes store power near the excitation source (Snyder, 1983). 2.2 Polarization maintained optical fibers Birefringent optical fibers are those fibers that display two distinct refractive indices depending on the polarization direction of the light entering into them. The two principal axes of the birefringent fibers are named the fast and slow axis. For a light beam whose