Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 The SaSanian World Through georgian eyeS Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 For John and Gena Fine Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 The Sasanian World through georgian eyes Caucasia and the iranian Commonwealth in late antique georgian literature STephen h. rapp Jr Sam Houston State University, USA Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 © Stephen h. rapp Jr 2014 Stephen h. rapp Jr has asserted his right under the Copyright, designs and patents act, 1988, to be identified as the author of this work. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library The Library of Congress has cataloged the printed edition as follows: rapp, Stephen h. The Sasanian World through georgian eyes: Caucasia and the iranian Commonwealth in late antique georgian literature / by Stephen h. rapp Jr. pages cm includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Sassanids – historiography. 2. Sassanids – history – Sources. 3. iran – history – To 640 – historiography. 4. georgia (republic) – history – To 1801 – historiography. 5. georgia (republic) – Kings and rulers – historiography. 6. Caucasus – historiography. 7. georgian literature – history and criticism. 8. hagiography – history and criticism. 9. georgian language – To 1100 – Texts. i. Title. dS286.r29 2014 935’.707072039536–dc23 2014001008 ISBN 9781472425522 (hbk) The Armenian font in this work is available from www.linguistsoftware.com/larmu.htm. Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Notice First published by Ashgate Publishing 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Published 2016 by Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business Routledge 2014 Copyright Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 Contents List of Figures and Maps vii Preface and Acknowledgements xi Note on Transliteration xvii Abbreviations xxi Maps xxv introduction: Contexts 1 parT i: hagiographiCal TexTS 1 The Vitae of Šušanik and Evstat‛i 33 2 The nino Cycle 105 parT ii: hiSToriographiCal TexTS 3 K ‛ art ‛ lis c ‛ xovreba and the historiographical Mok ‛ c ‛ evay k ‛ art ‛ lisa y 169 4 The Life of the Kings 187 5 The Life of the Successors of Mirian 261 6 The Life of Vaxtang Gorgasali 271 7 ps.-Juanšer’s Continuation 331 epilogue: Hambavi mep ‛ et ‛ a and Sasanian Caucasia 353 appendix i: Terminological note 377 appendix ii: georgian literary Sources for the Sasanian era 379 Appendix III: K‛art‛velian Kings and Presiding Princes until the End of the Sasanian empire 385 Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes vi Appendix IV: Mihrānid Bidaxš es of Somxit‛i-Gugark‛ 389 appendix V: Sasanian Šāhan šāh s 391 Bibliography 393 Index 499 Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 List of Figures and Maps Figures photographs are by the author unless otherwise noted. i.1 opening of The Life of the Kings in Patmut ‛ iwn Vrac ‛, the medieval armenian-language adaptation of K ‛ art ‛ lis c ‛ xovreba , “a” or “arm/a” redaction, 1274–1311. Matenadaran 1902, 218. photograph courtesy of the Matenadaran, erevan. 10 i.2 Closing of The Life of the Successors of Mirian and beginning of The Life of Vaxtang Gorgasali in the oldest georgian-language variant of K ‛ art ‛ lis c ‛ xovreba , anaseuli (“a”) or “Queen anne” redaction, 1479–1495. georgian national Centre of Manuscripts Q-795, 125. photograph courtesy of the georgian national Centre of Manuscripts, T‛bilisi. 11 I.3 Opening of Iakob C‛urtaveli’s Passion of Šušanik in the Parxali mravalt ‛ avi ( polykephalon ), eleventh century. Written in nusxuri script. Georgian National Centre of Manuscripts A-95, 353r. Photograph courtesy of the Georgian National Centre of Manuscripts, T‛bilisi. 14 i.4 opening of The Martyrdom of Evstat ‛ i in an ecclesiastical collection (“Krebuli”), late tenth/early eleventh century. Written in nusxuri script. georgian national Centre of Manuscripts h-341, 416r. photograph courtesy of the georgian national Centre of Manuscripts, T‛bilisi. 16 i.5 Closing of Royal List I and beginning of The Conversion of K ‛ art ‛ li in the Šatberdi variant of Mok ‛ c ‛ evay k ‛ art ‛ lisay , tenth century. georgian national Centre of Manuscripts S-1141, 216v. photograph courtesy of the georgian national Centre of Manuscripts, T‛bilisi. 18 I.6 Mc‛xet‛a and Armazis-c‛ixe. 20 I.7 The Achaemenid-like building at Gumbat‛i. Used with the permission of dr Florian Knauss. 24 Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes viii I.8 The palace at Dedop‛lis Gora. Used with the permission of prof dr andreas Furtwängler. 26 1.1 Bolnisi Sioni. 40 1.2 Foundational inscription, Bolnisi Sioni. photograph courtesy of the Georgian National Museum, T‛bilisi. 40 1.3 Foundational inscription, Bolnisi Sioni. Detail of precise in situ copy. 40 1.4 Signet of Aspaurouk[is] pitiaxēs . Photograph courtesy of the Georgian National Museum, T‛bilisi. 66 1.5 Ruins of Samšwlde Sioni. 70 1.6 Asomt ‛ avruli inscription mentioning local pitiaxši s, Samšwlde Sioni. 70 1.7 Presumed site of a late antique Zoroastrian temple, T‛bilisi. 93 1.8 Sixth-century basilica, Nekresi monastic complex. 101 2.1 Etching of St Nino from Sabinin’s 1882 collection of Georgian vitae , Sak ‛ art ‛ ūēlo s samot ‛ xe , opposite p. 119. 109 2.2 Church of St Hṙip‛simē, Vałaršapat (Ē ǰmiacin ), Armenia. 116 2.3 Ateni Sioni. 119 2.4 Hunting scene, Ateni Sioni. 119 2.5 The Caucasus Mountains and Mt Šxara from Ušguli, Svanet‛i. 135 2.6 Ruins of the fortress of Çırax-qala , northeastern Azerbaijan. 137 2.7 Modern fresco of Nino toppling the idols, Antiok‛ia (Antioch) convent, Mc‛xet‛a. 143 2.8 Foundation of the temple at Armazis-c‛ixe. 148 2.9 Ruins of Armazis-c‛ixe and the peak above associated with the idol Armaz. 154 2.10 Armazis-c‛ixe, including a six-columned hall (lower walled structure) from the second to first century BC. 155 Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 List of Figures and Maps ix 2.11 Mazdean temple, Nekresi. 159 3.1 Sasanian silver bowl of Bidaxš Pāpag , second half of the third century, found at Armazis-q‛evi near Mc‛xet‛a. Photograph courtesy of the Georgian National Museum, T‛bilisi. 180 4.1 Modern statue of Hayk, Erevan. 190 4.2 Modern statue of King P‛arnavaz, T‛bilisi. 206 4.3 The Armazi Bilingual inscription. Photograph courtesy of the Georgian National Museum, T‛bilisi. 217 4.4 Sculpture of a sacred bull, interior of Bolnisi Sioni. 253 4.5 Cross with spread wings motif, exterior of Bolnisi Sioni. 254 4.6 Cross with spread wings motif, exterior of Juari (Mc‛xet‛a). 255 4.7 Cross with spread wings motif, interior of Cilkani. Photographed with the assistance of Julie Nelson. 256 5.1 Cilkani. 266 6.1 Modern statue of Vaxtang gorgasali outside the Metexi church, T‛bilisi. 272 6.2 Scene from Amirandarejaniani on the exterior of the Lašt‛xveri church, Svanet‛i. 299 6.3 Sueti-c‛xoveli, Mc‛xet‛a. 304 6.4 Manglisi. 307 6.5 Sasanian seal-stamp inscribed Vrθangi. British Museum, no. 119712. Photograph courtesy of the British Museum, London. 310 6.6 K‛art‛velo-Sasanian coin with obverse asomt ‛ avruli inscription GRG , gurgen. american numismatic Society 1999.54.1. photograph courtesy of the american numismatic Society, New York. 327 Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes x 6.7 K‛art‛velo-Sasanian coin with obverse asomt ‛ avruli inscription GN , Gurge n . Georgian National Museum, no. 4058. Photograph courtesy of the Georgian National Museum, T‛bilisi. 327 6.8 K‛art‛velo-Sasanian coin with obverse asomt ‛ avruli inscription STEP ‛ ANOS . Georgian National Museum, no. 5870. Photograph courtesy of the Georgian National Museum, T‛bilisi. 328 7.1 Juari. 338 7.2 Step‛anos patrikios , inscription and exterior plaque, Juari. 339 7.3 T‛bilisi’s restored Nariqala fortress, presumably on or near the site of Kala. 346 Maps 1 Caucasia, iran and anatolia. xxv 2 Caucasia. xxvi Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 Preface and Acknowledgements This project drew its first breath in spring 2009 when Rika Gyselen asked me to catalogue the sporadic georgian references to the Sasanian empire for Res Orientales . The material’s complexity became rapidly apparent and the anticipated article grew into this book-length investigation. Extended coverage has made possible a panoramic examination of the images of Sasanian iran in georgian literary and epigraphical monuments. it has also provided an opportunity to interrogate narrative imagery as it pertains to kingship, social structure and religion, and to consider in more depth the close linguistic ties of iran and Caucasia. on its largest analytical scale this volume exposes both the fundamental cohesiveness of late antique Caucasia and its active participation in the iranian world even centuries after the Christianisation of the armenians, eastern georgians and Caucasian albanians. This cross-cultural study probes two categories of Georgian texts, each of which is encoded with distinctive perceptions of Iran and Caucasia’s relationship to it. The first comprises the oldest surviving literary compositions in Georgian, three hagiographical works written between the late fifth and the early seventh century. These passions and vitae , popularly termed “saints’ lives”, were written with the express purpose of defining, consolidating and enlarging Christianity. As we would expect, their ecclesiastical authors, contemporaries of the Sasanians, sometimes envisioned Iran and Zoroastrianism as imminent dangers. 1 But in many cases the hagiographers’ attitude towards Iran is ambivalent. When it is expressed, scorn is reserved for particular Sasanian officials active on Caucasian soil. 2 The historiographical 3 sources (“histories”) of the second classification attained their received state around the year 800, well after the final collapse of the Sasanian Empire in 651 but just prior to the ascendancy of the Georgian branches of the Bagratid dynasty in 813. Remarkably, their three authors – and 1 One of these vitae , the generic Passion of the Children of Kolay , is devoid of allusions to the three Caucasian monarchies and the Sasanian and Roman Empires. For the terminology used in this study, including the distinction between Mazdaism and Zoroastrianism, see Appendix I. 2 For antagonism, see Kekeliże 1955a. Anti-Sasanian sentiment is more common in early Armenian literature. 3 Though sometimes awkward, this term is a reminder of the multilayered roles of authors, editors and scribes over long periods of time. The production of historical images and narratives is central to this investigation. Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes xii the sources upon which they rely – openly acknowledge and often positively evaluate Caucasia’s long-term integration into the Iranian world. 4 While a thematic approach has its virtues, the intricacies of our sources, shrouded in unfamiliarity and misconception, require an examination predicated chiefly upon individual texts. Distortions of the historical picture are the steep wages of the extraction of specific information without a thorough understanding of the origin, purpose, transmission and reception of the narrative host. At the same time, broader literary contexts – especially the neglected pan-Caucasian one – must be taken into account. 5 Two medieval corpora, K ‛ art ‛ lis c ‛ xovreba and Mok ‛ c ‛ evay k ‛ art ‛ lisay , have been particularly prone to decontextualisation and structural homogenisation. 6 Their discrete components are frequently lumped together without adequate regard for authorships, target audiences, internal structures and functions. Yet they are monuments whose distinctiveness must be handled, first, in tandem with the medieval literary collections in which they are now exclusively preserved and, second, within the regional sphere of Caucasian literature. As a consequence, this volume proceeds from holistic treatments of individual sources and keeps an eye locked on the cross-cultural conditions of their composition, the perspectives and agendas of their authors, and their place within the Caucasian literary canon. 7 In light of Caucasia’s organic and durable connections to Iran, I argue for the extension of the term “Sasanian”, in a strict sense designating the Iranian core of the Sasanian Empire ( Ērān , Ērān šahr) 8 including what has been dubbed the Sasanian-Parthian “confederacy”. 9 But as it is deployed in the following pages, “Sasanian” also intends the Sasanian phase of the Iranian Commonwealth, 10 a diverse and cosmopolitan network of cross-cultural exchange and shared social structures, conventions and language. Iranians and non-Iranians actively contributed to this enduring enterprise that stretched from Anatolia and Caucasia to Central Asia. Like the Armenians, whose bonds to Iran have been more extensively studied, eastern Georgians were long-standing members of the 4 This nexus persisted into the Christian period of Caucasian history for more than 500 years. As I define it, the Iranian Commonwealth first came into existence under the Achaemenids. See Frye 1963, 120, and the epigraph of the Introduction below. 5 See also Garsoïan and Martin-Hisard 1996, esp. 327. 6 For the rendering of Georgian titles, see the Note on Transliteration. 7 This approach entails a certain amount of duplication. The separate examinations of the two literary categories are incongruous owing to the quantity and divergent nature of surviving sources. In Part I minute shreds of Iranian and Iranic material are identified and analysed. In Part II, however, there is a relative abundance of evidence, especially as it pertains to kingship and epic imagery. 8 On Ērānšahr, see now: Daryaee 2009; and Payne 2013. 9 Pourshariati 2008. 10 I have rejected the term “civilisation” because of its inherent diffusionism, imperialist implications and Eurocentric background. See Lewis and Wigen 1997, esp. 126–135. Cf. Sanderson 1995. Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 Preface and Acknowledgements xiii Iranian socio-cultural world who simultaneously possessed a language, literary tradition and religion that could set them apart. 11 Early Georgian literature and the larger Caucasian experience reveal the Iranian Commonwealth to be far more dynamic and heterogeneous than is commonly thought. 12 Through a critical reading and contextualisation of literary sources, textual monuments having their own histories, this study seeks to examine the past “on its own terms” so far as possible. 13 It strives to recover cross-cultural, regional and transregional ties that have been forgotten, tossed aside or never consciously realised. While this interdisciplinary exploration is projected through wide geographical, temporal and thematic lenses, it does not attempt to elaborate a comprehensive treatment of Georgian let alone Caucasian, Iranian or Romano- Byzantine history. It engages specific multifaceted and interconnected problems and sets them within cosmopolitan milieux. But it neither articulates an elegant, chronologically-arranged political narrative of “what really happened” nor tackles every historical issue in the period. This volume seeks consistency, transparency and accuracy, though some errors undoubtedly remain. When a particular line of evidence does not live up to its promise, the preponderance of contemporaneous materials and the interwoven threads of interpretation will, I hope, still validate the central arguments. The principal research and fieldwork for this book was carried out in the three republics of southern Caucasia. Materials collected in georgia, armenia and Azerbaijan were supplemented by manuscripts and printed matter consulted in the Russian Federation, Turkey, the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany and Switzerland’s Röstigraben, my home from 2009 until 2012. I am especially grateful for the opportunity to have worked with the unique collections of the National Centre of Manuscripts (formerly the Korneli Kekeliże Institute of Manuscripts) in T‛bilisi, the Matenadaran in Erevan, the Bodleian Library in Oxford and the British Museum in London. Numerous academic institutions kindly provided access to their libraries, including indiana university (Bloomington), the university of Michigan (ann arbor), uCla, the university of California at Berkeley, Emory University, the Oriental Institute of Oxford University, the university of Bern and the american academy in rome. The patient interlibrary loan staff at the University of Oklahoma (Norman) and Sam Houston State University exceeded my wildest expectations. I wish to thank the Historisches institut at the university of Bern and the Centre for the exploration of georgian 11 The religious distinction did not begin with the introduction of Christianity. As we shall see, the peoples of Caucasia had their own hybrid polytheistic faiths which, by the advent of Late Antiquity, featured localised strains of Mazdaism. 12 Similarly, early Christian Caucasia is a microcosm of the tremendously diverse Eastern Christian/Byzantine and Islamic Commonwealths. Central and Inner Asia also expand our understanding of the heterogeneity and cosmopolitanism of the Iranian world under the Sasanians. See, e.g., Cribb and Herrmann 2007. 13 This study accordingly prioritises late antique toponyms and ethnonyms. Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes xiv Antiquities at the Georgian University of St Andrew the First-Called in T‛bilisi and their directors, Stefan Rebenich and T‛amila Mgaloblišvili respectively, for providing academic affiliations at a vulnerable moment in my career. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the financial support of the Department of History at Sam houston State university (Brian domitrovic, chair). Cross-disciplinary work is exciting and perilous: the practitioner must wade and sometimes swim far into unfamiliar waters. At the same time, no academic undertaking is a solo venture regardless of the thousands of hours one might pass in monastic isolation or in near-hypnosis before the flickering light of a computer screen. I am fortunate to have been buoyed by many outstanding colleagues and friends who were unfailingly generous with their expertise. Numerous scholars across a constellation of fields provided comments, suggestions and criticisms, sometimes with little advance notice. Regretfully, it is not possible to acknowledge all of them here. But I should like to single out the titanic efforts of Touraj Daryaee (who graciously read the manuscript in its infancy and again as I was submitting it to my copy-editor at Ashgate), Robert Thomson, John Fine, Rika Gyselen, James Russell, Tim Greenwood, Joel Walker, Geoffrey Greatrex, Giorgi Kavtaraże, Robert Hewsen, T‛amila Mgaloblišvili, Giorgi Čeišvili , Kevin Tuite, Antony Eastmond and Hirotake Maeda. Philippe Gignoux greatly assisted with the transliteration of Middle Iranian. During the three years I lived in Bern, Roland Bielmeier exponentially widened my linguistic horizons, particularly with regards to Parthian and Middle Persian. My understanding of Caucasia’s relationship to the Achaemenid Empire was sharpened by a long conversation with Bruno Jacobs on a brisk spring day in 2011 at the University of Basel and through correspondence with Antonio Sagona and Lori Khatchadourian. Scott McDonough, Mary Whitby, Anthony Kaldellis, Tom Schmidt, Alison Vacca and Paul Crego rescued me from the metaphorical Sarlaac Pit by answering specific questions and by helping me track down elusive critical editions and printed materials. Parvaneh Pourshariati, Jost Gippert, Mixeil Abramišvili, Werner Seibt, Gocha Tsetskhladze, Aram T‛op‛č‛yan, Gohar Muradyan, Alessandro Bruni, Farshid Delshad, Sophia Vashalomidze, Zaza Sxirtlaże, Darejan Kldiašvili, Jefferson Sauter, Helen Giunašvili, Mariam Gvelesiani and others made available their publications, assisted with bibliographical queries, and/or provided feedback on specific sections of this volume. The family of the late Giorgi Melik‛išvili supplied me with a copy of that great scholar’s rare anthology of journal articles. Ian Colvin (Nok‛alak‛evi/C‛ixegoji/Archaeopolis), Nodar Baxtaże (Nekresi) and Vaxtang Nikolaišvili (Baginet‛i/Armazis-c‛ixe) generously shared their archaeological sites in summer 2013. My photographs are supplemented by images kindly provided by the Georgian National Centre of Manuscripts (Buba Kudava, director), the Georgian National Museum (Davit‛ Lort‛k‛ip‛aniże, director), the Matenadaran (Hrač‛ya T‛amrazyan, director), the British Museum, the American Numismatic Society, Andreas Furtwängler and Florian Knauss. I wish to thank Šušanik Xač‛ikyan, Chris Sutherns, T‛amuna Gegia, Amiran Makaraże and Elena Stolyarik for their valuable assistance with these images. Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 Preface and Acknowledgements xv Ian Mladjov produced the beautiful maps. The transformation of this project from manuscript to finished book owes much to the diligence and enthusiasm of Ashgate, including John Smedley, Kirsten Weissenberg, Etty Payne and Katie McDonald. Throughout this project’s journey i leaned upon the expertise, wisdom and encouragement of Nina Garsoïan, Ronald Suny, Rudi Lindner, Kevork Bardakjian, John graham, Michael Christopher low, devin deWeese, Sebouh aslanian, Dean Sakel and my recently departed friends Traianos Gagos, Jerry Bentley and Armena Maderosian. I am grateful to patient audiences in T‛bilisi, Erevan, Istanbul, Bern, Mainz, Konstanz, St Andrews, Ann Arbor, Seattle, Los Angeles, Irvine and New Haven for their thoughtful feedback on ideas featured in the pages below. The hyper-politicisation of Caucasian history is the stuff of Promethean legend. Therefore, i must stress that all the views expressed in this study are mine and mine alone. errors in fact, interpretation and presentation are entirely my responsibility and in no way should reflect negatively on the expert advice from which I have so handsomely benefitted. Last but not least, this undertaking would not have been possible without the abiding support of my family and friends. humanistic and emotional feats worthy of the bumberazi s of old were performed by my resplendent companions Julie and Finn nelson as well as gwen and Stephen rapp Sr, gena Fine, andrew Lawler, Kenneth Levy-Church, Helen Whiting, the Doleshal trio, Jeff Crane and family, Andrew and Suzanne Orr, Marina Diamandis, the Baileys and a fuzzy four-legged ex-Muscovite affectionately named Gorby. STephen h. rapp Jr Bern, Switzerland, and Huntsville, Texas, USA Funds provided by the Eurasia Program of the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) and the National Council for Eurasian and East European Research (NCEEER), under the authority of Title VIII grants from the United States Department of State, supported the research and fieldwork leading to this publication. The author is solely responsible for the views expressed here. Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 This page intentionally left blank Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 note on Transliteration There is no entirely consistent or universally accepted solution to the quandary of transliterating Caucasian languages. Consider Georgian S , Armenian շ and Russian ш , which represent three languages, three scripts and two linguistic families. The most literal and immediately recognisable transcription of these characters into English is sh , but Georgian and Armenian have separate letters s and h . Single-character š is the most precise rendering, but it is rarely encountered in works about Georgians and Russians outside the linguistic realm. It is, however, far more common in scholarship about Armenians. Although this book is concerned chiefly with Georgian texts, it deploys a connective, regional methodology in which Georgian and Armenian sources are handled as a single – but diverse – body of Christian Caucasian literature. Therefore, the transcriptions of Georgian and Armenian have been correlated so far as possible. The most conspicuous exceptions are the near-equivalents Georgian R and Armenian ղ , transliterated ɣ and ł respectively ( gh is more commonly encountered). Aspirated Georgian and Armenian consonants are suffixed ‛. Russian is a relatively recent import to the Caucasian arena. In order to distinguish it from Georgian and Armenian (especially for the benefit of those unfamiliar with these tongues), Russian is transcribed according to a simplified version of the system used by the Library of Congress (USA). No attempt has been made to standardise Russian transliteration with that of Georgian and Armenian, e.g., Georgian and Armenian š but Russian sh . Likewise, Georgian and Armenian č / č ‛ ( C / W , ճ / չ ) are roughly equivalent to Russian ch (ч); x ( x , խ ) – to Russian kh (х); ž ( J , ժ ) – to Russian zh (ж); and j / ǰ ( j , ջ ) – to Russian dzh ( дж ). When authors hailing from Caucasia have published in multiple languages, their names may be rendered in a variety of ways. Thus, the Georgian surname Javaxišvili ( javaxiSvili ) is transcribed into Russian as Dzhavakhishvili (Джавахишвили) and less commonly – in imperial Russian and early Soviet times – as Russified Dzhavakhov (Джавахов); it is sometimes anglicised as Javakhishvili and even Djavakhishvili. In many Western languages, Georgian suffixes – švili (– Svili ) and – że (– Ze ), both meaning “son of ”, are transcribed – shvili and – dze respectively. As a rule, names of specialists from Caucasia who write principally in one of the indigenous languages are transliterated from their native tongues with variants enumerated in the Bibliography. Many of the narratives investigated below have come down to us exclusively within medieval corpora or, in the case of K ‛ art ‛ lis c ‛ xovreba , suites of texts within corpora. Because such collections are customarily named after their core components, titles of corpora and their suites (when they exist) are transliterated and those of constituent texts are translated into English . Thus, Mok ‛ c ‛ evay k ‛ art ‛ lisay Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes xviii is a medieval corpus whereas The Conversion of K ‛ art ‛ li , its core component, is a discrete text. Georgian Since the early fifth century, three dedicated scripts have been used to write georgian: asomt ‛ avruli , nusxuri and mxedruli , the last of which remains in use today. none of the georgian scripts distinguishes between miniscule and majuscule characters. It should be noted that linguists tend to mark glottal instead of aspirated consonants. -I- -II- -III- -IV- -V- -I- -II- -III- -IV- -V- a a a a 1 s s s s 200 b b b b 2 t t t t 300 g g g g 3  K  w — d d d d 4 u u o, o u 400 e e e e 5 f f f p ‛ 500 v v v v 6 q q q k ‛ 600 z z z z 7 R R R ɣ [gh] 700 À H À ē 8 y y y q 800 T T T t ‛ 9 S S S š [sh] 900 i i i i 10 C G C č ‛ [ch ‛ ] 1,000 k k k k 20 c c c c ‛ [ts ‛ ] 2,000 l l l l 30 Z Z Z ż [dz] 3,000 m m m m 40 w w w c [ts] 4,000 n n n n 50 W W W č [ch] 5,000 Á Y Á y 60 x x x x [kh] 6,000 o o o o 70 à P à q ‛ 7,000 p p p p 80 j j j j [dzh] 8,000 J J J ž [zh] 90 h h h h 9,000 r r r r 100 Ä — Ä ō 10,000 I – mxedruli script II – nusxuri script III – asomt ‛ avruli script IV – transliteration, with common variants in brackets V – numerical value Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017 Note on Transliteration xix Armenian armenian is transliterated according to the hübschmann-Meillet-Benveniste system. Աա Բբ Գգ Դդ Եե Զզ Էէ Ըը Թթ Ժժ Իի Լլ a b g d e z ē ə t ‛ ž i l Խխ Ծծ Կկ Հհ Ձձ Ղղ Ճճ Մմ Յյ Նն Շշ Ոո x c k h j ł č m y n š o Չչ Պպ Ջջ Ռռ Սս Վվ Տտ Րր Ցց Ււ Փփ Քք č ‛ p ǰ ṙ s v t r c ‛ w p ‛ k ‛ Օօ ō u Parthian, Middle Persian and Other Iranian Languages The transliteration of Middle persian normally observes the scheme employed by MacKenzie 1986. The nuances of transliterating Middle Iranian languages have made it impractical to impose absolute consistency. Greek Besides cases when a Latin and/or anglicised version has become especially commonplace across academic fields, Greek words are transliterated directly from the original, matching the convention used for other languages. Thus, Prokopios and not Procopius; Herakleios, not Heraclius; but Constantinople, not Kōstantinoupolis. The diacritical mark indicating rough breathing is transcribed by the prefix h- , e.g., Ἁρμοζική = Harmozikē. Common variants are given in brackets. Downloaded by [University of South Florida] at 11:24 24 July 2017