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You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license Title: A Source Book for Ancient Church History Author: Joseph Cullen Ayer, Jr., Ph.D. Release Date: April 2, 2008 [Ebook #24979] Language: English ***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A SOURCE BOOK FOR ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY*** *A Source Book for Ancient Church History* *From the Apostolic Age to the Close of the Conciliar Period* *by Joseph Cullen Ayer, Jr., Ph.D.* Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the Divinity School of the Protestant Episcopal Church in Philadelphia New York Charles Scribner’s Sons 1913 CONTENTS Errata. Preface. General Bibliographical Note The First Division Of Ancient Christianity: The Church Under The Heathen Empire: To A. D. 324 Period I. The Apostolic Age: To Circa A. D. 100 § 1. The Neronian Persecution § 2. The Death of Peter and Paul § 3. The Death of the Apostle John § 4. The Persecution under Domitian Period II. The Post-Apostolic Age: A. D. 100-A. D. 140 § 5. Christianity and Judaism § 6. The Extension of Christianity § 7. Relation of the Roman State to Christianity § 8. Martyrdom and the Desire for Martyrdom § 9. The Position of the Roman Community of Christians in the Church § 10. Chiliastic Expectations § 11. The Church and the World § 12. Theological Ideas § 13. Worship in the Post-Apostolic Period § 14. Church Organization § 15. Church Discipline § 16. Moral Ideas in the Post-Apostolic Period Period III. The Critical Period: A. D. 140 to A. D. 200 Chapter I. The Church In Relation To The Empire And Heathen Culture § 17. The Extension of Christianity § 18. Heathen Religious Feeling and Culture in Relation to Christianity § 19. The Attitude of the Roman Government toward Christians, A. D. 138 to A. D. 192 § 20. The Literary Defence of Christianity Chapter II. The Internal Crisis: The Gnostic And Other Heretical Sects § 21. The Earlier Gnostics: Gnosticism in General § 22. The Greater Gnostic Systems: Basilides and Valentinus § 23. Marcion § 24. Encratites § 25. Montanism Chapter III. The Defence Against Heresy § 26. The Beginnings of Councils as a Defence against Heresy § 27. The Apostolic Tradition and the Episcopate § 28. The Canon or the Authoritative New Testament Writings § 29. The Apostles’ Creed § 30. Later Gnosticism § 31. The Results of the Crisis Chapter IV . The Beginnings Of Catholic Theology § 32. The Apologetic Conception of Christianity (A) The Logos Doctrine (B) The Doctrine of the Trinity (C) Moralistic Christianity (D) Argument from Hebrew Prophecy § 33. The Asia Minor Conception of Christianity Period IV . The Age Of The Consolidation Of The Church: 200 to 324 A. D. Chapter I. The Political And Religious Conditions Of The Empire § 34. State and Church under Septimius Severus and Caracalla § 35. Religious Syncretism in the Third Century § 36. The Religious Policy of the Emperors from Heliogabalus to Philip the Arabian, 217-249 § 37. The Extension of the Church at the Middle of the Third Century Chapter II. The Internal Development Of The Church In Doctrine, Custom, And Constitution § 38. The Easter Controversy and the Separation of the Churches of Asia Minor from the Western Churches § 39. The Religion of the West: Its Moral and Juristic Character § 40. The Monarchian Controversies (A) Dynamistic Monarchianism (B) Modalistic Monarchianism § 41. Later Montanism and the Consequences of its Exclusion from the Church § 42. The Penitential Discipline § 43. The Catechetical School of Alexandria: Clement and Origen § 44. Neo-Platonism Chapter III. The First General Persecution And Its Consequences § 45. The Decian-Valerian Persecution § 46. Effects of the Persecution upon the Inner Life of the Church Chapter IV . The Period Of Peace For The Church: A. D. 260 To A. D. 303 § 47. The Chiliastic Controversy § 48. Theology of the Second Half of the Third Century under the Influence of Origen § 49. The Development of the Cultus § 50. The Episcopate in the Church § 51. The Unity of the Church and the See of Rome § 52. Controversy over Baptism by Heretics § 53. The Beginnings of Monasticism § 54. Manichæanism Chapter V . The Last Great Persecution § 55. The Reorganization of the Empire by Diocletian § 56. The Diocletian Persecution § 57. Rise of Schisms in Consequence of the Diocletian Persecution The Second Division Of Ancient Christianity: The Church Under The Christian Empire: From 312 To Circa 750 Period I: The Imperial State Church Of The Undivided Empire, Or Until The Death Of Theodosius The Great, 395 Chapter I. The Church And Empire Under Constantine § 58. The Empire under Constantine and His Sons § 59. Favor Shown the Church by Constantine § 60. The Repression of Heathenism under Constantine § 61. The Donatist Schism under Constantine § 62. Constantine’s Endeavors to Bring about the Unity of the Church by Means of General Synods: The Councils of Arles and Nicæa Chapter II. The Arian Controversy Until The Extinction Of The Dynasty Of Constantine § 63. The Outbreak of the Arian Controversy and the Council of Nicæa, A. D. 325 § 64. The Beginnings of the Eusebian Reaction under Constantine § 65. The Victory of the Anti-Nicene Party in the East § 66. Collapse of the Anti-Nicene Middle Party; the Renewal of Arianism; the Rise of the Homoousian Party § 67. The Policy of the Sons of Constantine Toward Heathenism and Donatism § 68. Julian the Apostate Chapter III. The Triumph Of The New Nicene Orthodoxy Over Heterodoxy And Heathenism § 69. The Emperors from Jovian to Theodosius and Their Policy toward Heathenism and Arianism § 70. The Dogmatic Parties and Their Mutual Relations § 71. The Emperor Theodosius and the Triumph of the New Nicene Orthodoxy at the Council of Constantinople, A. D. 381 Chapter IV . The Empire And The Imperial State Church § 72. The Constitution of the State Church (A) The Ecumenical Council (B) The Hierarchical Organization § 73. Sole Authority of the State Church § 74. The Position of the State Church in the Social Order of the Empire § 75. Social Significance of the State Church § 76. Popular Piety and the Reception of Heathenism in the Church § 77. The Extension of Monasticism Throughout the Empire § 78. Celibacy of the Clergy and the Regulation of Clerical Marriage Period II. The Church From The Permanent Division Of The Empire Until The Collapse Of The Western Empire And The First Schism Between The East And The West, Or Until About A. D. 500 Chapter I. The Church At The Beginning Of The Permanent Separation Of The Two Parts Of The Roman Empire § 79. The Empire of the Dynasty of Theodosius. § 80. The Extension of the Church about the Beginning of the Fifth Century Chapter II. The Church Of The Western Empire In The Fifth Century § 81. The Western Church Toward the End of the Fourth Century § 82. Augustine’s Life and Place in the Western Church § 83. Augustine and the Donatist Schism § 84. The Pelagian Controversy § 85. Semi-Pelagian Controversy § 86. The Roman Church as the Centre of the Catholic Roman Element of the West Chapter III. The Church In The Eastern Empire. § 87. The First Origenistic Controversy and the Triumph of Traditionalism § 88. The Christological Problem and the Theological Tendencies § 89. The Nestorian Controversy; the Council of Ephesus A. D. 431. § 90. The Eutychian Controversy and the Council of Chalcedon A. D. 451 § 91. Results of the Decision of Chalcedon: the Rise of Schisms from the Monophysite Controversy § 92. The Church of Italy under the Ostrogoths and during the first Schism between Rome and the Eastern Church Period III. The Dissolution Of The Imperial State Church And The Transition To The Middle Ages: From The Beginning Of The Sixth Century To The Latter Part Of The Eighth Chapter I. The Church In The Eastern Empire § 93. The Age of Justinian § 94. The Byzantine State Church under Justinian § 95. The Definitive Type of Religion in the East: Dionysius the Areopagite Chapter II. The Transition To The Middle Ages. The Foundation Of The Germanic National Churches § 96. The Celtic Church in the British Isles § 97. The Conversion of the Franks. The Establishment of Catholicism in the Germanic Kingdoms § 98. The State Church in the Germanic Kingdoms § 99. Gregory the Great and the Roman Church in the Second Half of the Sixth Century § 100. The Foundation of the Anglo-Saxon Church Chapter III. The Foundation Of The Ecclesiastical Institutions Of The Middle Ages § 101. Foundation of the Mediæval Diocesan and Parochial Constitution § 102. Western Piety and Thought in the Period of the Conversion of the Barbarians § 103. The Foundation of the Mediæval Penitential System § 104. The New Monasticism and the Rule of Benedict of Nursia § 105. Foundation of Mediæval Culture and Schools Chapter IV . The Revolution In The Ecclesiastical And Political Situation Due To The Rise Of Islam And The Doctrinal Disputes In The Eastern Church § 106. The Rise and Extension of Islam § 107. The Monothelete Controversy and the Sixth General Council, Constantinople A. D. 681 § 108. Rome, Constantinople, and the Lombard State Church in the Seventh Century § 109. Rome, Constantinople, and the Lombards in the Period of the First Iconoclastic Controversy; the Seventh General Council, Nicæa, A. D. 787 Index Footnotes ERRATA. [Transcriber’s Note: These corrections have already been applied to the text in this e-book.] Page 55, line 26. Lucian, of Samosata, does, etc.: omit commas. Page 65, lines 20, 21, 25, 27, 31, 34, 35, 36. For, Ptolomæus: read, Ptolemæus. Page 77, line 27. For, Ptolomæus: read, Ptolemæus. Page 77, line 28. Panarion, Italics. [ Panarion is the title of the book.] Page 93, line 34. For, Ptolomæus: read, Ptolemæus. Page 95, lines 9, 11. For, Ptolomæus: read, Ptolemæus. Page 110, line 11. Insert after V , 24: (given below, § 38). Page 128, line 12. For, and to use it: read, and use it. Page 245, line 16. Transpose so as to read: Were the sacraments they administered to be regarded, then, Page 267, line 20. For, are: read, art. Page 273, line 1. For, is: read, are. Page 282, line 29. For, exemptions from the clergy: read, exemptions of the clergy. Page 283, line 24. For, V supra , 58 f. : read, V supra § 58, f. Page 299, line 18. For, Constantinople: read, Alexandria. Page 306, line 14. Add: And in the Holy Ghost. [This should stand as a sentence by itself, although there is no complete sentence.] Page 316, line 6. For, desensus : read, descensus Page 337, line 6. For, 368: read, 378. Page 361, note. Omit all after: Council of Chalcedon in 451; changing comma to period. Page 402, line 19. For, Milcoe: read, Mileve. Page 579, line 24. Insert comma after: common faith. Page 594, line 22. For, will: read, wilt. Page 603, line 31. For, rivalries: read, rivalry. Page 627, line 28. For, days: read, days’. Page 697, line 1. For, ἀ σπασμον: read ἀ σπασμ ὸ ν. Page 705, col. 2, lines 29, 30. For, Ptolomæus: read, Ptolemæus. PREFACE. The value of the source-book has long been recognized in the teaching of general history. In ecclesiastical history quite as much use can be made of the same aid in instruction. It is hoped that the present book may supply a want increasingly felt by teachers employing modern methods in teaching ecclesiastical history. It has grown out of classroom work, and is addressed primarily to those who are teaching and studying the history of the Christian Church in universities and seminaries. But it is hoped that it may serve the constantly increasing number interested in the early history of Christianity. In the arrangement of the selected illustrative material, a chronological analysis and grouping of topics has been followed, according to the lines of treatment employed by K. Müller, F. Loofs, V on Schubert in his edition of Moeller’s text-book, and by Hergenröther to some extent. The whole history of ancient Christianity has accordingly been divided into comparatively brief periods and subdivided into chapters and sections. These divisions are connected and introduced by brief analyses and characterizations, with some indications of additional source material available in English. A bibliography originally prepared for each chapter and section has been omitted. When the practical question arose of either reducing the amount of source material to admit a bibliography, or of making the book too expensive for general use by students, the main purpose of the book determined the only way of avoiding two unsatisfactory solutions of the problem, and the bibliography has been omitted. In this there may be less loss than at first appears. The student of ecclesiastical history is fortunately provided with ample bibliographical material for the ancient Church in the universally available theological and other encyclopædias which have very recently appeared or are in course of publication, and in the recent works on patristics. Possibly the time has come when, in place of duplicating bibliographies, reliance in such matters upon the work of others may not be regarded as mortal sin against the ethics of scholarship. A list of works has been given in the General Bibliographical Note, which the student is expected to consult and to which the instructor should encourage him to go for further information and bibliographical material. The book presupposes the use of a text-book of Church history, such as those by Cheetham, Kurtz, Moeller, Funk, or Duchesne, and a history of doctrine, such as those of Seeberg, Bethune-Baker, Fisher, or Tixeront. Readings in more elaborate treatises, special monographs, and secular history may well be left to the direction of the instructor. The translations, with a few exceptions which are noted, are referred for the sake of convenience to the Patrology of Migne or Mansi’s Concilia . Although use has been freely made of the aid offered by existing translations, especially those of the Ante-Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers , yet all translations have been revised in accordance with the best critical texts available. The aim in the revision has been accuracy and closeness to the original without too gross violation of the English idiom, and with exactness in the rendering of ecclesiastical and theological technical terms. Originality is hardly to be expected in such a work as this. An author may not be conscious of any attempt to make his selection of texts illustrate or support any particular phase of Christian belief or ecclesiastical polity, and his one aim may be to treat the matter objectively and to render his book useful to all, yet he ought not to flatter himself that in either respect he has been entirely successful. In ecclesiastical history, no more than in any other branch of history, is it possible for an author who is really absorbed in his work to eliminate completely the personal equation. He should be glad to be informed of any instance in which he may have unwittingly failed in impartiality, that when occasion presented he might correct it. The day has gone by in which ecclesiastical history can not be treated save as a branch of polemical theology or as an apologetic for any particular phase of Christian belief or practice. It has at last become possible to teach the history of the Christian Church, for many centuries the greatest institution of Western Europe, in colleges and universities in conjunction with other historical courses. This volume has been prepared at the suggestion of the American Society of Church History, and valuable suggestions have been gained from the discussions of that society. To Professor W. W. Rockwell, of Union Theological Seminary, New York, Professor F. A. Christie, of Meadville Theological School, the late Professor Samuel Macauley Jackson, of New York, and Professor Ephraim Emerton, of Harvard University, I have also been indebted for advice. The first two named were members with me of a committee on a Source-Book for Church History appointed several years ago by the American Society of Church History. That the book now presented to the public may be of service to the teacher and student of ecclesiastical history is my sincere wish. It may easily happen that no one else would make just the same selection of sources here made. But it is probable that the principal documents, those on which the majority would agree and which are most needed by the teacher in his work, are included among those presented. There are, no doubt, slips and defects in a book written at intervals in a teacher’s work. With the kind co- operation of those who detect them, they may be corrected when an opportunity occurs. JOSEPH CULLEN AYER, JR. GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE Under each period special collections of available sources are to be found. The student is not given any bibliography of works bearing on the topics, but is referred to the following accessible works of reference of recent date for additional information and bibliographies: The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopædia of Religious Knowledge , edited by S. M. Jackson, New York, 1908-12. The Catholic Encyclopædia , New York, 1907-12. The Encyclopædia Britannica , eleventh edition, Cambridge, 1910. The Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics , edited by J. Hastings, Edinburgh and New York, 1908 ff. (In course of publication.) For the patristic writers, their lives, works, editions, and other bibliographical matter, see: G. Krüger, History of Early Christian Literature in the First Three Centuries , English translation by C. R. Gillett, New York, 1897. Cited as Krüger. B. Bardenhewer, Patrologie , Freiburg-i.-B., 1911, English translation of second edition (1901) by T. J. Shahan, St. Louis, 1908. Cited as Bardenhewer. In addition to the encyclopædias the following are indispensable, and should be consulted: Smith and Wace, Dictionary of Christian Biography , Literature, Sects and Doctrines, London, 1877-87. (The Condensed Edition of 1911 by no means takes the place of this standard work.) Cited DCB. Smith and Cheetham, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities , London, 1875-80. Cited DCA. Advanced students and those capable of using French and German are referred to the following, which have admirable and authoritative articles and ample bibliographies: Realencyclopædie für protestantische Theologie , edited by A. Hauck, Leipsic, 1896 ff. Two supplementary volumes appeared in 1913. Cited PRE. Kirchenlexicon oder Encyclopædie der katholischen Theologie und ihrer Hilfswissenschaften , second edition, by J. Hergenröther und F. Kaulen, Freiburg-i.-B., 1882-1901. Cited KL. Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique , edited by A. Vacant and E. Mangenot, Paris, 1903 ff. Dictionnaire d’Archéologie Chrétienne et de Liturgie , edited by F. Cabrol, 1903 ff. Dictionnaire d’Histoire et de Géographie Ecclesiastiques ; edited by A. Baudrillart, A. V ogt, and U. Roziès, Paris, 1909 ff. Collections of sources in the original languages, easily procured and to be consulted for texts and to some extent for bibliographies: C. Mirbt, Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums und des römischen Katholizismus , third edition, Tübingen, 1911. Cited as Mirbt. C. Kirch, S. J., Enchiridion fontium historiæ ecclesiasticæ antiquæ Freiburg-i.-B., 1910. Cited as Kirch. H. Denziger, Enchiridion symbolorum, definitionum et declarationum de rebus fidei et morum , eleventh edition, edited by Clemens Bannwart, S. J., Freiburg-i.-B., 1911. Cited as Denziger. A. Hahn. Bibliothek der Symbole und Glaubensregeln der alten Kirche , third edition, Breslau, 1897. Cited as Hahn. G. Krüger. Sammlung ausgewählter kirchen und dogmengeschichtlicher Quellenschriften , Freiburg-i.-B. Of this useful collection especially important are the following of more general application: E. Preuschen, Analecta: Kürzere Texte zur Geschichte der alten Kirche und des Kanons , second edition, 1909-10. F. Lauchert, Die Kanones der wichtigsten altkirchlichen Concilien nebst den apostolischen Kanones R. Knopf, Ausgewählte Märtyreracten . Cited as Knopf. Other volumes are cited in connection with topics. H. T. Bruns, Canones apostolorum et conciliorum sæculorum IV, V, VI, VII , Berlin, 1839. Cited as Bruns. Although not source-books, yet of very great value for the sources they contain should be mentioned: J. C. L. Gieseler, A Text-Book of Church History , English translation, New York, 1857. K. R. Hagenbach, A History of Christian Doctrines , English translation, Edinburgh, 1883-85. C. J. Hefele, Conciliengeschichte , Freiburg-i.-B., 1855-70. Second edition, 1873 et seq. A new French translation with admirable supplementary notes has just appeared. The English translation ( History of the Councils ), Edinburgh, 1876-95, extends only through the eighth century. Cited as Hefele. THE FIRST DIVISION OF ANCIENT CHRISTIANITY: THE CHURCH UNDER THE HEATHEN EMPIRE: TO A. D. 324 By the accession of Constantine to the sole sovereignty of the Roman Empire, A. D. 324, ancient Christianity may be conveniently divided into two great periods. In the first, it was a religion liable to persecution, suffering severely at times and always struggling to maintain itself; in the second, it became the religion of the State, and in its turn set about to repress and persecute the heathen religions. It was no longer without legal rights; it had the support of the secular rulers and was lavishly endowed with wealth. The conditions of the Church in these two periods are so markedly different, and the conditions had such a distinct effect upon the life and growth of the Christian religion, that the reign of Constantine is universally recognized as marking a transition from one historical period to another, although no date which shall mark that transition is universally accepted. The year 311, the year in which the Diocletian persecution ceased, has been accepted by many as the dividing point. The exact date adopted is immaterial. The principal sources in English for the history of the Christian Church before A. D. 324 are: The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Translations of the Writings of the Fathers down to A. D. 325. American edition, Buffalo and New York, 1885-1896; new edition, New York, 1896 (a reprint). The collection, cited as ANF, contains the bulk of the Christian literature of the period, with the exception of the less important commentaries of Origen. Eusebius, Church History . Translated with Prolegomena and Notes by Arthur Cushman McGiffert. In A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church . Second series, New York, 1890. The Church History of Eusebius is the foundation of the study of the history of the Church before A. D. 324, as it contains a vast number of citations from works now lost. The edition by Professor McGiffert is the best in English, and is provided with scholarly notes, which serve as an elaborate commentary on the text. It should be in every library. This work is cited as Eusebius, Hist. Ec. The text used in the extracts given in this source book is that of Ed. Schwartz, in Die Griechischen Christlicher: Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhunderte . Kleine Ausgabe, Leipsic, 1908. This text is identical with the larger and less convenient edition by the same editor. Period I. The Apostolic Age: To Circa A. D. 100 The period in the Church before the clash with Gnosticism and the rise of an apologetic literature comprises the apostolic and the post-apostolic ages. These names have become traditional. The so-called apostolic age, or to circa 100, is that in which the Apostles lived, though the best tradition makes John the only surviving Apostle for the last quarter of a century. The principal sources for the history of the Church in this period are the books of the New Testament, and only to a slight degree the works of contemporaneous Jewish and heathen writers. It is hardly necessary to reproduce New Testament passages here. The Jewish references of importance will be found in the works on the life of Christ and of St. Paul. As the treatment of this period commonly falls under a different branch of study, New Testament exegesis, it is not necessary in Church history to enter into any detail. There are, however, a few references to events in this period which are to be found only outside the New Testament, and are of importance to the student of Church history. These are the Neronian persecution (§ 1), the death of the Apostles (§§ 2, 3), and the persecution under Domitian (§ 4). The paucity of references to Christianity in the first century is due chiefly to the fact that Christianity appeared to the men of the times as merely a very small Oriental religion, struggling for recognition, and contending with many others coming from the same region. It had not yet made any great advance either in numbers or social importance. § 1. The Neronian Persecution The Neronian persecution took place A. D. 64. The occasion was the great fire which destroyed a large part of the city of Rome. To turn public suspicion from himself as responsible for the fire, Nero attempted to make the Christians appear as the incendiaries. Many were put to death in horrible and fantastic ways. It was not, however, a persecution directed against Christianity as an unlawful religion. It was probably confined to Rome and at most the immediate vicinity, and there is no evidence that it was a general persecution. Additional source material: Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum , ch. 2 (ANF, VII); Sulpicius Severus, Chronicon, II. 28 (PNF, ser. II, vol. XI). ( a ) Tacitus, Annales , XV , 44. Preuschen, Analecta , I, § 3:1. Mirbt, n. 3. Tacitus (c. 52-c. 117), although not an eye-witness of the persecution, had exceptionally good opportunities for obtaining accurate information, and his account is entirely trustworthy. He is the principal source for the persecution. Neither by works of benevolence nor the gifts of the prince nor means of appeasing the gods did the shameful suspicion cease, so that it was not believed that the fire had been caused by his command. Therefore, to overcome this rumor, Nero put in his own place as culprits, and punished with most ingenious cruelty, men whom the common people hated for their shameful crimes and called Christians. Christ, from whom the name was derived, had been put to death in the reign of Tiberius by the procurator Pontius Pilate. The deadly superstition, having been checked for a while, began to break out again, not only throughout Judea, where this mischief first arose, but also at Rome, where from all sides all things scandalous and shameful meet and become fashionable. Therefore, at the beginning, some were seized who made confessions; then, on their information, a vast multitude was convicted, not so much of arson as of hatred of the human race. And they were not only put to death, but subjected to insults, in that they were either dressed up in the skins of wild beasts and perished by the cruel mangling of dogs, or else put on crosses to be set on fire, and, as day declined, to be burned, being used as lights by night. Nero had thrown open his gardens for that spectacle, and gave a circus play, mingling with the people dressed in a charioteer’s costume or driving in a chariot. From this arose, however, toward men who were, indeed, criminals and deserving extreme penalties, sympathy, on the ground that they were destroyed not for the public good, but to satisfy the cruelty of an individual. ( b ) Clement of Rome, Ep. ad Corinthios , I, 5, 6. Funk, Patres Apostolici , 1901. (MSG, 1:218.) Preuschen, Analecta , I, § 3:5. The work known as the First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians was written in the name of the Roman Church about 100. The occasion was the rise of contentions in the Corinthian Church. The name of Clement does not appear in the body of the epistle, but there is no good ground for questioning the traditional ascription to Clement, since before the end of the second century it was quoted under his name by several writers. This Clement was probably the third or fourth bishop of Rome. The epistle was written soon after the Domitian persecution (A. D. 95), and refers not only to that but also to an earlier persecution, which was very probably that under Nero. As the reference is only by way of illustration, the author gives little detail. The passage translated is of interest as containing the earliest reference to the death of the Apostles Peter and Paul, and the language used regarding Paul has been thought to imply that he labored in parts beyond Rome. Ch. 5. But to leave the ancient examples, let us come to the champions who lived nearest our times; let us take the noble examples of our generation. On account of jealousy and envy the greatest and most righteous pillars of the Church were persecuted, and contended even unto death. Let us set before our eyes the good Apostles: Peter, who on account of unrighteous jealousy endured not one nor two, but many sufferings, and so, having borne his testimony, went to his deserved place of glory. On account of jealousy and strife Paul pointed out the prize of endurance. After he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had been a preacher in the East and in the West, he received the noble reward of his faith; having taught righteousness unto the whole world, and having come to the farthest bounds of the West, and having borne witness before rulers, he thus departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having become a notable pattern of patient endurance. Ch. 6. Unto these men who lived lives of holiness was gathered a vast multitude of the elect, who by many indignities and tortures, being the victims of jealousy, set the finest examples among us. On account of jealousy women, when they had been persecuted as Danaïds and Dircæ, and had suffered cruel and unholy insults, safely reached the goal in the race of faith and received a noble reward, feeble though they were in body. § 2. The Death of Peter and Paul Eusebius, Hist. Ec. , II, 25. (MSG, 20:207.) Cf. Mirbt, n. 33. For an examination of the merits of Eusebius as a historian, see McGiffert’s edition, PNF, ser. II, vol. I, pp. 45-52; also J. B. Lightfoot, art. “Eusebius (23) of Caesarea,” in DCB. The works of Caius have been preserved only in fragments; see Krüger, § 90. If he was a contemporary of Zephyrinus, he probably lived during the pontificate of that bishop of Rome, 199-217 A. D. The Phrygian heresy which Caius combated was Montanism; see below, § 25. Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, was a contemporary of Soter, Bishop of Rome, 166-174 A. D., whom he mentions in an epistle to the Roman Church. Of his epistles only fragments have been preserved; see Krüger, § 55. The following extract from his epistle to the Roman Church is the earliest explicit statement that Peter and Paul suffered martyrdom at the same time or that Peter was ever in Italy. In connection with this extract, that from Clement of Rome (see § 1, a ) should be consulted; also Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum , ch. 2 (ANF). It is therefore recorded that Paul was beheaded at Rome itself, and that Peter was crucified likewise at the same time. This account of Peter and Paul is confirmed by the fact that their names are preserved in the cemeteries of that place even to the present time. It is confirmed no less by a member of the Church, Caius by name, a contemporary of Zephyrinus, Bishop of Rome. In carrying on a discussion in writing with Proclus, the leader of the Phrygian heresy, he says as follows concerning the places where the sacred corpses of the aforesaid Apostles are laid: “But I am able to show the trophies of the Apostles. For if you will go to the Vatican or to the Ostian Way, you will find the trophies of those who laid the foundations of this church.” And that they two suffered martyrdom at the same time is stated by Dionysius, Bishop of Corinth, corresponding with the Romans in writing, in the following words: “You have thus by such admonition bound together the planting of Peter and Paul at Rome and at Corinth. For both planted in our Corinth and likewise taught us, and in like manner in Italy they both taught and suffered martyrdom at the same time.” § 3. The Death of the Apostle John ( a ) Irenæus, Adversus Hæreses , II, 22, 5; III, 3, 4. (MSG, 7:785, 854.) Irenæus was bishop of Lyons soon after 177. He was born in Asia Minor about 120, and was a disciple of Polycarp (ob. circa 155) and of other elders who had seen John, the disciple of the Lord. II, 22, 5. Those in Asia associated with John, the disciple of the Lord, testify that John delivered it [a tradition regarding the length of Christ’s ministry] to them. For he remained among them until the time of Trajan [98-117 A. D.]. III, 3, 4. But the church in Ephesus also, which was founded by Paul, and where John remained until the time of Trajan, is a faithful witness of the apostolic tradition. ( b ) Jerome, Comm. ad Galat. (MSL, 26:462.) The following extract from Jerome’s commentary on Galatians is of such late date as to be of doubtful value as an authority. There is, however, nothing improbable in it, and it is in harmony with other traditions. It is to be taken as a tradition which at any rate represents the opinion of the fourth century regarding the Apostle John. Cf. Jerome, De Viris Inlustribus , ch. 9 (PNF, ser. II, vol. III, 364). When the holy Evangelist John had lived to extreme old age in Ephesus, he could be carried only with difficulty by the hands of the disciples, and as he was not able to pronounce more words, he was accustomed to say at every assembly, “Little children, love one another.” At length the disciples and brethren who were present became tired of hearing always the same thing and said: “Master, why do you always say this?” Thereupon John gave an answer worthy of himself: “Because this is the commandment of the Lord, and if it is observed then is it enough.” ( c ) Eusebius, Hist. Ec. , III, 31. (MSG, 20:279.) Polycrates was bishop of Ephesus and a contemporary of Victor of Rome (189-199 A. D.). His date cannot be fixed more precisely. The reference to the “high priest’s mitre” is obscure; see J. B. Lightfoot, Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians , p. 345. A longer extract from this epistle of Polycrates will be found under the Easter Controversy (§ 38). The time of John’s death has been given in a general way,(1) but his burial-place is indicated by an epistle of Polycrates (who was bishop of the parish of Ephesus) addressed to Victor of Rome, mentioning him, together with the Apostle Philip and his daughters, in the following words: “For in Asia also great lights have fallen asleep, which shall rise again at the last day, at the coming of the Lord, when he shall come with glory from heaven and seek out all the saints. Among these are Philip, one of the twelve Apostles, who sleeps at Hierapolis, and his two aged virgin daughters, and another daughter who lived in the Holy Spirit and now rests at Ephesus; and moreover John, who was both a witness and a teacher, who reclined upon the bosom of the Lord, and being a priest wore the high priest’s mitre, also sleeps at Ephesus.” § 4. The Persecution under Domitian What is commonly called the persecution under Domitian (81-96) does not seem to have been a persecution of Christianity as such. The charges of atheism and superstition may have been due to heathen misunderstanding of the Christian faith and worship. There is no sufficient ground for identifying Flavius Clemens with the Clemens who was bishop of Rome. For bibliography of the persecution under Domitian, see Preuschen, Analecta , second ed., I, 11. ( a ) Cassius Dio (excerpt. per Xiphilinum), Hist. Rom. , LXVII, 14 f. Preuschen, Analecta , I, § 4:11. For Cassius Dio, see Encyc. Brit. , art. “Dio Cassius.” At that time (95) the road which leads from Sinuessa to Puteoli was paved. And in the same year Domitian caused Flavius Clemens along with many others to be put to death, although he was his cousin and had for his wife Flavia Domitilla, who was also related to him. The charge of atheism was made against both of them, in consequence of which many others also who had adopted the customs of the Jews were condemned. Some were put to death, others lost their property. Domitilla, however, was only banished to Pandataria. ( b ) Eusebius, Hist. Ec. , III, 18. (MSG, 20:252.) To such a degree did the teaching of our faith flourish at that time(2) that even those writers who were far from our religion did not hesitate to mention in their histories the persecutions and martyrdoms which took place during that time. And they, indeed, accurately indicate the time. For they record that, in the fifteenth year of Domitian, Flavia Domitilla, daughter of a sister of Flavius Clemens, who was at that time one of the consuls of Rome, was exiled with many others to the island of Pontia(3) in consequence of testimony borne to Christ. Period II. The Post-Apostolic Age: A. D. 100-A. D. 140 The post-apostolic age, extending from circa 100 to circa 140, is the age of the beginnings of Gentile Christianity on an extended scale. It is marked by the rapid spread of Christianity, so that immediately after its close the Church is found throughout the Roman world, and the Roman Government is forced to take notice of it and deal with it as a religion (§§ 6, 7); the decline of the Jewish element in the Church and extreme hostility of Judaism to the Church (§ 5); the continuance of chiliastic expectations (§ 10); the beginnings of the passion for martyrdom (§ 8); as well as the appearance of the forms of organization and worship which subsequently became greatly elaborated and remained permanently in the Church (§§ 12- 15); as also the appearance of religious and moral ideas which became dominant in the ancient Church (§§ 11, 12, 16). The literature of the period upon which the study of the conditions and thought of the Church of this age must be based is represented principally by the so-called Apostolic Fathers, a name which is convenient, but misleading and to be regretted. These are Clement of Rome, Barnabas, Ignatius, Polycarp, Papias, Hermas; with the writings of these are commonly included two anonymous books known as the Didache , or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles , and the Epistle to Diognetus . From all of these selections are given.(4) § 5. Christianity and Judaism The Christian Church grew up not on Jewish but on Gentile soil. In a very short time the Gentiles formed the overwhelming majority within the Church. As they did not become Jews and did not observe the Jewish ceremonial law, a problem arose as to the place of the Jewish law, which was accepted without question as of divine authority. One solution is given by the author of the so-called Epistle of Barnabas, which should be compared with the solution given by St. Paul in his epistles to the Galatians and to the Romans. The number of conversions from Judaism rapidly declined, and very early an extreme hostility toward Christianity became common among the Jews. ( a ) Barnabas, Epistula , 4, 9. The epistle attributed to Barnabas is certainly not by the Apostle of that name. Its date is much disputed, but may be safely placed within the first