Among Digitized Manuscripts Handbook of Oriental Studies Handbuch der Orientalistik section one The Near and Middle East Edited by Maribel Fierro ( Madrid ) M. Şukru Hanioğlu ( Princeton ) Renata Holod ( University of Pennsylvania ) Florian Schwarz ( Vienna ) volume 137 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/ho1 Among Digitized Manuscripts Philology, Codicology, Paleography in a Digital World By L.W.C. van Lit, O.P. LEIDEN | BOSTON Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface. ISSN 0169-9423 ISBN 978-90-04-41521-8 (hardback) ISBN 978-90-04-40035-1 (e-book) Copyright 2020 by the Author. Published by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi, Brill Sense, Hotei Publishing, mentis Verlag, Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh and Wilhelm Fink Verlag. Koninklijke Brill NV reserves the right to protect the publication against unauthorized use and to authorize dissemination by means of offprints, legitimate photocopies, microform editions, reprints, translations, and secondary information sources, such as abstracting and indexing services including databases. Requests for commercial re-use, use of parts of the publication, and/or translations must be addressed to Koninklijke Brill NV. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner. This is an open access title distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 License, which permits any non-commercial use, and distribution, provided no alterations are made and the original author(s) and source are credited. The digital resources referred to in this book are freely available online at http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3371200. Cover illustration: Manuscript page from the ʿAmal al-munāsakhāt bi-al-jadwal by Aḥmad ibn Muḥammad Ibn al-Hāʾim. The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at http://catalog.loc.gov LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019037402 Dedicated to my brethren Theo, Jan, Richard, Stefan, Michael-Dominique, and Augustinus ∵ Wise men and fools must both perish, and leave their wealth to others ∵ Contents Acknowledgments xi Introduction 1 1 Manuscript World, Print World, Digital World 8 1 Three Worlds 8 1.1 Surfaces of Emergence 14 1.2 Authorities of Delimitation 18 1.3 Grids of Specification 23 2 Case Study 1: ABC for Book Collectors versus A Dictionary of English Manuscript Terminology 31 2.1 Manuscript Practices in a Print World 31 2.2 Fear of Voiding or Fear of the Void 33 2.3 Moldy Manuscript or Pristine Print 35 3 Case Study 2: A World Without Whom versus Do I Make Myself Clear? 37 3.1 Word of the Year: 2015 or 2016? 37 3.2 Thinking to Type or Typing to Think? Typewriter versus Text Messages 40 4 Case Study 3: The Written, Printed, and Digital Koran 42 4.1 From Manuscript to Print 43 4.2 From Print to Digital 46 4.3 From Digital to Manuscript 47 5 Consequences for Digitized Manuscripts 50 2 The Digital Materiality of Digitized Manuscripts 51 1 Stepping into the Digital World 51 2 Larger Than Life Digitized Manuscripts 56 3 The Intangible Aura of Material Manuscripts 60 4 What Are Digitized Manuscripts? 64 5 New Habits for Philologists in a Digital World 69 3 Digitized Manuscripts and Their Repositories, an Ethnography 73 1 Old Collections in Europe 74 1.1 Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin 74 1.2 Qatar Digital Library 74 viii Contents 1.3 Leiden Universiteitsbibliotheek 75 1.4 Bibliothèque nationale de France 75 1.5 Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana 76 2 New Collections in North America 76 2.1 Caro Minasian Collection at the University of California, Los Angeles Library 76 2.2 Beinecke Rare Book & Manuscript Library 77 2.3 Princeton University Library 77 2.4 University of Michigan Library 77 2.5 Islamic Studies Library, McGill University 78 3 Major Collections in the MENA Region 79 3.1 Süleymaniye Kütüphanesi 79 3.2 Topkapı Sarayı Müzesi Kütüphanesi 79 3.3 Ketābkhāna va mūza-ye melli-ye Malek 80 3.4 al-Maktaba al-waṭaniyya li-l-mamlaka al-maghribiyya 80 3.5 Jāmiʿa Malik Saʿūd 80 4 Notable Collections in Africa, the Levant, and Asia 81 4.1 Jāmiʿa al-najāḥ al-waṭaniyya 81 4.2 Jafet Library 82 4.3 Aboubacar Bin Said Library and Mamma Haidara Library on vHMML 82 4.4 MyManuskrip Malaya University 83 4.5 Daiber Collection Database at the Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo 83 5 A Grand Comparison of the Quality of Digital Surrogates 84 5.1 Size of Collection 84 5.2 Online 85 5.3 Downloadable 85 5.4 Portal 87 5.5 Viewer 88 5.6 Page Numbers 89 5.7 Resolution 90 5.8 Color Balance 90 5.9 Lighting 91 5.10 Cut 92 5.11 A Final Rating 92 6 A Visual Comparison 94 7 Difference between Professional and Amateur Photos 95 8 The Future of Digital Manuscript Repositories 95 ix Contents 4 Paleography: Between Erudition and Computation 102 1 The Variety of Digital Paleographic Experience 102 1.1 From Paper to Digital 103 1.2 Born Digital, with A Hint of Print 105 1.3 Traditional Work Done Better 107 1.4 Towards Handwriting Recognition 111 2 Rise and Fall of Team Projects Funded by Grants 117 2.1 Archetypes across the DH Spectrum 121 3 Drawing Ancient Symbols on a Tablet 123 5 Philology: Standards for Digital Editing 132 1 File Formats 133 2 Encoding of Text 140 3 Markup of Text 145 4 Intermezzo: Using the Right Editing Tool 156 4.1 You Need to Create a Small Critical Edition Solely for Print Purposes 156 4.2 You Are Working with a Very Large Text from Which You Will Mine Specific Bits of Information 157 4.3 You Have a Large Set of Separate Writings 157 4.4 You Will Work Intensively with a Stable Text 158 4.5 You Wish to Critically Edit a Text with Unusual Features or Multiple Manuscript Witnesses 158 4.6 Concluding Thoughts 159 5 Handling Images 160 6 Archiving and Publishing 167 6 Cataloging: From a Dusty Backroom to the World Wide Web 175 1 Field Research Workflow: From a Dusty Backroom to My Computer 176 2 Web Development: From My Computer to the World Wide Web 185 3 Structure: HTML 187 4 Content: JSON 193 5 Style: CSS 197 6 Interactivity: JavaScript 199 7 Productivity: Code Editor and Code Repository 220 8 Quantitative Analysis of the Collection 223 x Contents 7 Codicology: Automated Analysis Using Python and OpenCV 227 1 Why Code? 229 2 Description of Case Study 231 3 Introduction to Python 232 4 Introduction to OpenCV 235 5 Step 1: Extraction of Images 237 6 Step 2: Analysis of an Image 247 6.1 The Function Check_image_readable 249 6.2 The Function Analyze_image 251 6.3 The Function Display_image 257 6.4 The Function Find_angle 263 6.5 The Mathematics behind Finding the Angle 267 7 Step 3: Running the Script over Large Numbers 271 8 Results 282 8 A Digital Orientalist 287 Postscript. Among Digitized Manuscripts 292 Bibliography 311 Index of Persons 325 Index of Subjects 329 Acknowledgments This book is the result of years of slowly piecing together experience. I should note here that I have experience with coding and designing from a young age. In the final year of elementary school in 1998, I created the school’s website, and throughout my teens I made Flash animations. What also helped was that I studied mathematics in college. Coming with that background into Islamic studies obviously set me up to engage with digital humanities. In 2013, I started a weblog called The Digital Orientalist , with the intent to share my workflows and homemade hacks and tools that make life a little easier for someone in Islamic studies using a computer. Originally, my idea was to write posts that could ultimately function as paragraphs in a book-length introduction to the role of computers and digital resources for students in the humanities. As I saw it, and still is the case, students may learn research-related methodologies, and may learn how to read a text or write an essay, but rarely is there formal train- ing in how the computer is integrated into all of this. In 2015, I participated in various workshops and events at the DH Lab of Yale University, which helped me refine and reorient my endeavors. In 2016, I focused on working exclusively with digitized manuscripts. In the spring of 2017 I had prepared a more formal investigation of what it means to work with digitized manuscripts versus actual manuscripts which I presented at Freie Universität Berlin. My research stay was sponsored by the Dahlem Humanities Center, on invitation of Olly Akkerman. In the summer of that year, I had ex- panded my work into two separate articles on which I presented at Jyväskylä University, in Finland. I worked there as a postdoc in the ERC-funded project ‘Epistemic Transitions in Islamic Philosophy’, whose principal investigator is Jari Kaukua. It was Kutlu Okan, PhD candidate in that ERC project, who even- tually convinced me that I should expand the two articles into one book. The majority of the book I wrote in the academic year ’17–’18, residing at Blackfriars Priory in Cambridge, UK. The home stretch was done as part of my postdoc research grant, sponsored by the NWO (Netherlands Council for Research). I am tremendously thankful for the patronage of the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies and the Open Access Fund, both at Utrecht University. They made it possible to publish this book in electronic open ac- cess. During these years, countless colleagues have helped me along the way, for which I am very grateful. Rotterdam, Pentecost 2019 © Cornelis van Lit, 2020 | doi:10.1163/9789004400351_002 This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 License. Introduction This book is for humanities students or scholars who are classically trained in handling manuscript materials and wish to take advantage of the incredible computing power at their fingertips but are at a loss where to begin. Some of the more technical parts of the book could be challenging, but a little persis- tence and practice, over time, should more than suffice. I also hope to reach those who are more skeptical; who would agree with Paul Eggert, a book historian of modern English literature, when he wrote: “Speaking as a humanities scholar who lacks programming skills and ongoing access to a funded computing laboratory, the assumed advantage of the elec- tronic environment is far less clear.”1 My response to this challenge is twofold. First, as colleagues around you introduce computer-supported solutions into their workflow, they will gain an edge over you. In fact, as digital methods gain wider currency, digitally restyling parts of our workflow will become the norm, and you may well be left behind if you decide not to do likewise. Second, and more importantly, I will argue that using computers for your erstwhile meth- odology and workflow requires some adaptions. This is chiefly because digital photos impose specific limitations: their resolutions might be very low, their colors might not be true to life, or they can only be accessed from the museum website. Knowing how to spot and judge these limitations will be most useful to work efficiently and accurately, and this requires a little bit of knowledge about what digital photos of manuscripts are. In my experience, the most daunting aspect of applying computer-supported methodologies in one’s work is its demand for a life-changing choice. Because, in this day and age, although technology is capable of doing more and more, students and seasoned scholars alike have had little or no exposure to it during their training. The result is that the so-called ‘digital humanities’ (DH) pose a real conundrum: either one pretends it does not exist, or one takes it as a specialization at the graduate level. In the second case, one stops becoming a historian of, for example, ancient Greece, medieval Islam, or the long eigh- teenth century, and is now on the path to becoming something else—a ‘Digital Humanist,’ where the ‘digital’ part dominates over one’s original expertise. As a consequence, such a researcher tends to be restricted to communicating pri- marily with other ‘Digital Humanists’ and to publishing in their own special- ized journals. The first group, meanwhile, does not invest significant time in 1 Eggert, P. “The Book, the E-Text and the ‘Work-Site.’” pp. 63–82 in Text Editing, Print and the Digital World , edited by M. Deegan and K. Sutherland. Surrey: Ashgate, 2009, p. 63. 2 Introduction learning how digital tools can be used to make our work easier and better. In the rush of assignments, teaching duties, administrative burdens, conference preparations, brushing up language skills, and keeping up with developments in the field, it is one task too many to become acquainted with computer- supported solutions. This leads to an almost perfect disconnect between manuscript studies and ‘digital humanities.’ On the one hand, introductions to manuscript studies seem to overlook the part of our work that happens on computers, assuming that we have access to the material manuscripts.2 On the other hand, introductions to digital humanities tend to suppose that the re- searcher already has the text in digital format.3 The gap between the two is not seriously addressed.4 Another major hurdle in engaging with computer-supported solutions is the perceived cost of both time and funds. In digital humanities, research, all too often, is conducted using team-based projects funded by generous grants. The rationale behind this is that expertise in digital humanities can best be partitioned into two groups: those specializing in the ‘digital’ aspect and those who focus on the ‘humanities’ aspect. At the simplest level, this would result in teams of two experts, the one being a humanities scholar and the other a technician or a developer. While the scholar would develop the research ques- tions and the conceptual path to a solution, the technician would make it happen. Experience shows, however, that what Snow calls ‘the two cultures problem’5 becomes almost insurmountable. If the scholarly problem becomes 2 Notably, even a team working specifically on ‘digital editing of medieval manuscripts’ pro- duced a guide that assumes there are only material manuscripts, see Haltrich, M., E. Kapeller, and J.A. Schön, eds. From Sheep to Shelf: An Illustrated Guide to Medieval Manuscripts for Students. DEMM, 2017. 3 Blackwell’s companion, arguably the field’s flagship introduction, fails to mention IIIF and does not have a snippet of TEI to show what it is like, see Schreibman, S., R. Siemens, and J. Unsworth, eds. A New Companion to Digital Humanities. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2016. 4 Notably, the manuscript specialists from Hamburg include a little about digitized manu- scripts in Bausi, A. (et al), ed. Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction Hamburg: COMSt, 2015. Likewise, the DH specialists Kurz and Jannidis devote a short sec- tion in their books to images: Jannidis, F., H. Kohle, and M. Rehbein. Digital Humanities: Eine Einführung . Stuttgart: J.B. Metzler, 2017; Kurz, S. Digital Humanities: Grundlagen und Technologien für die Praxis . Wiesbaden: Springer Vieweg, 2015. Two resources in English that come close but are a bit too specialized to serve as introductions are the book: Andrews, T., and C. Macé, eds. Analysis of Ancient and Medieval Texts and Manuscripts: Digital Approaches Turnhout: Brepols, 2014; And the journal issue: “The Digital Middle Ages.” Speculum 92, no. S1 (2017). See also the series of collected volumes Kodikologie und Paläographie im digi- talen Zeitalter (5 volumes so far). 5 Snow, C.P. The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1959. 3 Introduction more intricate and advanced, it becomes more likely that the technician will fail to provide a solution that truly encapsulates the problem. And when the technology becomes more advanced, it becomes more likely that the scholar will fail to understand how it can be improved to meet their requirements. If we scale back our ambitions towards using and modifying the existing technol- ogy, it is possible to have scholars operate on their own, as is customary in the humanities. The tools discussed in this book require no generous grant—they are mostly open source; they are free to download, use, and adapt. Such small adaptions can then be shared back to the community, fostering the organic growth of our toolbox. Finally, another issue for manuscript studies is that when it comes to digi- tized manuscripts, there is no prior agreed upon conceptual framework, nor an acknowledged, basic skill set. This book addresses this matter by providing a conceptual and practical toolbox. If something does not have a name, we liter- ally cannot speak or think clearly about it,6 hence working out a conceptual framework is essential. Similarly, without discussing what we can do with digi- tal tools at the beginner and intermediate level, we cannot properly determine the skills we must develop as a normal part of our methodological toolbox. Two things should be noted. First, this book is not about digitization itself. Parts of this book, such as Chapter Six, discuss work that leads towards select- ing artifacts to be digitized, but for the most part, the assumption is that your manuscripts of interest have already been digitized. If you wish to digitize ar- tifacts yourself, or if you are a professional in this regard, you will profit most from Chapters Two and Three. Second, neither is this book about plain-text analysis of repositories—such as Index Thomisticus ,7 Thesaurus Linguae Graeca ,8 Library of Latin Texts , al- Maktaba al-shāmila ,9 Chinese Text Project ,10 Perseus Digital Library , or Project Gutenberg , to name a few of the largest full-text databases from various fields. Such resources are a major advancement in the humanities, capable of yielding 6 Carroll, L. Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There . London: MacMillan, 1872, pp. 61–64. 7 This resource is generally considered to be the first ‘digital humanities’ project. It was started by Fr. Roberto Busa SJ in 1949 with the aim to have the entire corpus of Thomas Aquinas in electronic full-text format, searchable, indexed, and eventually syntactically analyzed. 8 The TLG has been a powerhouse since the 70’s. I do find it odd that its title is written in Latin. 9 The name literally means “The All-Comprehending Library” ( ة ش �ا� م��ل�� ة ا �ل��� ة��ب�� ك�م ا �ل���م� ). 10 The Chinese name literally means “The Chinese Philosophical Book Digitization Project” ( 中國哲學書電子化計劃 ). 4 Introduction fantastic new avenues of research if we exploit them by automated mining, using a distant reading methodology.11 But whereas digitization itself is pre- supposed, such plain text processing is a stage beyond the subject topic of this book. If what you have are images of texts, this is the book for you. This book represents a case study of how the different aspects of digital manuscript studies may be integrated into the work of one person. This means that most chapters draw heavily from examples of my own work in Islamic studies. The non-Islamicists, I hope, will forgive me for my field-specific exam- ples and find that the problems (and solutions) encountered are universal in nature, applicable to any other field involving digitized manuscripts. Similarly, my focus lies on manuscript and archival materials. Ancient texts or inscrip- tions, I am aware, may also appear on papyrus, stone, pottery, textile, coins, bone, and other materials. However, for reasons of space and my lack of experi- ence with these materials, I do not address the peculiarities of engaging with such texts through a digital surrogate.12 The seven chapters between this introduction and the conclusion are split into two parts. The first three cover the conceptual and theoretical framework of thinking about digital surrogates. The next four explain the practical and technical skills. Chapter One is theory-laden and, as such, comes logically prior to the rest of the book. Nevertheless, it could very well be read after the other conceptual chapters. In it, a framework is developed to examine the relationships between a material manuscript, print publication, and digital document. Here, I intro- duce the concepts ‘manuscript world,’ ‘print world,’ and ‘digital world,’ and I discuss how our work can be explained through the different relationships between these worlds. The manuscript world is a realm in which participants use and produce texts by writing them with ink by hand, on parchment, or paper. The print world is a world in which texts are machine-printed on mass- produced paper. Last, the digital world comes into existence when you type 11 This term was popularized by Franco Moretti as an opposite to ‘close reading.’ It has found diverse adaption in different fields of the humanities. For my own interpreta- tion, see Lit, L.W.C. van. “Commentary and Commentary Tradition: The Basic Terms for Understanding Islamic Intellectual History.” MIDEO 32 (2017): 3–26. Lit, L.W.C. van. The World of Image in Islamic Philosophy: Ibn Sīnā, Suhrawardī, Shahrazūrī, and Beyond Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2017. 12 That is not to say that there is no interesting work done on them. See e.g. the successful markup standard for epigraphy called EpiDoc: Bodard, G. “EpiDoc: Epigraphic Documents in XML for Publication and Interchange.” pp. 101–118 in Latin on Stone: Epigraphic Research and Electronic Archives , edited by F. Feraudi-Gruénais. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2010. 5 Introduction on a computer keyboard and see your input appear on an electronic screen. When we edit, we base our work on artifacts from the manuscript world. We work, meanwhile, on a computer, that is, in the digital world. Our final product, however, is often times a printed book, part of the print world. Chapter Two forms the book’s conceptual core. I discuss the perception scholars have of digitized manuscripts as ‘larger-than-life’ objects, emphasiz- ing the ability to zoom in and make the tiny details invisible to the naked eye visible. I discuss how this perception rests on larger trends of thinking about mechanical reproduction and digital surrogates, in effect viewing digitized manuscripts as though they are a window through which one can look at the material manuscript. As such, it is unsurprising that scholars cite the mate- rial manuscript when, in reality, they make use of a digital surrogate. I also respond to the opposite view; that digitized manuscripts destroy the pure ex- perience of handling the material manuscript itself. I argue that both views result from ignoring the ‘digital materiality’ of digital photos, which in turn occurs because we do not have a vocabulary to describe its features. I propose ten aspects by which to evaluate a digitized manuscript and its repository: (1) size of the collection; (2) online availability; (3) ability to download; (4) the portal through which the repository is accessed; (5) the viewer; (6) indica- tion of page numbers; (7) image resolution; (8) color balance; (9) lighting; and (10) how the image is cut. Chapter Three shows how these ten aspects can be used to evaluate twenty repositories, which are chosen to give a representative picture of the state of digitization of Islamic manuscripts worldwide. Since many of these librar- ies also host manuscripts of other disciplines, readers from beyond Islamic Studies should still find this informative of the general state of digitization. The result is that quality and usability varies wildly. Not all manuscripts are downloadable, and the legal restrictions applied to them are often ambiguous. I end this chapter by speculating on the future of these repositories. Chapter Four starts off the practical part of the book with two topics. First, I discuss how manuscript research specifically concerned with computer- supported solutions has evolved into team projects supported by big grants. I wish to highlight, in particular, when such big projects work well and when they seem to fall short of expectations. From this, we learn that we cannot rely on such teams to produce technical solutions to our problems. Instead, we need to take matters in our own hands. As the first step in this direction, I pro- vide a practical example of how a tablet and free drawing software can be used to perform simple yet effective paleographic work. This part of the chapter is an extended and more in-depth version of an article I previously published, 6 Introduction which discussed three glyphs that appear in a text by twelfth-century phi- losopher Suhrawardī, who claims that only the initiate will understand how these symbols represent the essence of his philosophy. By (literally) drawing from several medieval manuscripts and combining different versions of the glyphs, I arrive at the interpretation that the symbols are constructed from Arabic letters. Chapter Five discusses the workflow of digital editing. The particular soft- ware one uses will change over time, but many of the technical standards on which digital documents rest will remain the same. For this reason, it is es- sential to know these standards, such as Unicode, TEI, and IIIF. To lower the barrier for working in these standards, I shall provide some pointers on how to set up your computer—for example, how to create your own keyboard layout. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the pros and cons of what is called a ‘digital edition’: a publication that does not appear in print and, therefore, can take on digital forms unimaginable in the print world. For digital publishing of any kind, knowing web development technology is a terrific asset. In Chapter Six, I explain the entire process of creating an online catalog of a hitherto uncatalogued collection. We first look at how computers and smartphones can be helpful for fieldwork in an archive and then turn to create an interactive website to make the catalog openly available to others, using HTML, CSS, JSON, and JavaScript. We finish by looking at how those same technologies can help in creating attractive and insightful diagrams. Chapter Seven adopts a notably technical character. I explain how one might use a simple programming language such as Python and a well-known function library called OpenCV to analyze the covers of several thousand digi- tized manuscripts. The method is automated image recognition, and it aims to say meaningful things about the shape of the codex. All the while, the core skills for programming that are explained can be applied to any other use case. As such, the chapter revolves around introducing programming in general and Python in particular. Chapter Eight, the conclusion, is divided into three sections. The first stress- es the point that ‘digital’ humanities and ‘classical’ humanities are not contra- dictions; that the latter will benefit from working in the digital world. There has, for this reason, never been a better time to conduct classical philologi- cal, codicological, or paleographical studies. The second section synthesizes the lessons learned from the book. In the third section, I offer my perspective on the future of the ongoing incorporation of digital assets and tools within humanities. This book has two additional parts. As a postscript, I include a few stories about my experience in handling digitized manuscripts in a style similar to 7 Introduction Ignaz Kratchkovsky’s memoir Among Arabic Manuscripts .13 With these stories I wish to show that the experience of reading a material manuscript may be de- stroyed by using a digital surrogate, but other experiences of equally personal and emotional quality come about. It also gives additional insight into my daily practice concerning obtaining, storing, and retrieving digitized manuscripts. The last part of this book is not actually in this volume, but is a compan- ion website, a digital appendix. You can access it through the URL right below. There you will find images, code, data and other relevant digital documents. In this book itself you will find no URLs or DOIs: they have all been moved to the digital appendix. In fact, many more online resources, technologies, and tools are listed there to give you the opportunity to explore specialized or more advanced options after you have acquired the foundation that this book offers. For the digital appendix go to GitHub.com/Among For the stable, citable repository go to Zenodo.org/record/3371200 and use this DOI: DOI 10.5281/zenodo.3371200 Additionally, you will find a QR-code for every chapter. It will take you to the correct folder within the digital appendix. 13 Kratchkovsky, I.Y. Among Arabic Manuscripts . Translated by T. Minorsky. Leiden: Brill, 1953 [Reprinted 2016].