‘The global pandemic has painfully shown how international labour migration is essential to Europe’s economy and food security. Indeed the role of migration in revitalizing rural communities in Europe and in keeping agriculture afloat cannot be overstated. This is a timely and much needed book that investigates the social and economic implications of international labour migration to Europe’s rural regions from both empirical and analytical perspectives.’ Anna Triandafyllidou, Ryerson University, Canada ‘This is book is a must-read for anyone interested in understanding the phenomenon of internal rural migration in Europe, its diversity of local practices and similarity in outcomes for social groups, rural industries and rural societies across and within countries in Europe. It is the combination of empirically rich, in- depth case studies that portray the human element of migration with discussions of their significance against the background of labour market and migration theories and the specificity of the rural context that makes the book so particularly insightful.’ Bettina Bock, Wageningen University and Research, Netherlands ‘In fourteen expertly-crafted chapters, this collection offers a historically- informed snapshot of the living and working conditions of people who migrate to rural areas of Europe and the US for agricultural work. Never flinching from sharp critical analysis of the racial capitalism that often seeks to divide workforces in order to weaken them, International Labour Migration to Europe’s Rural Regions also engages with rural workers’ responses to the multiple structures of oppression they face. This book could not be more timely. Emerging as it does during a pandemic that has seen agricultural workers finally gain recognition as “key workers” it challenges the lie of “unskilled work” and the stigma that often accompanies agricultural wage work.’ Ben Rogaly, University of Sussex, UK International Labour Migration to Europe’s Rural Regions Emerging in the throes of a global pandemic that threatens Europe’s econ- omies and food security, International Labour Migration to Europe’s Rural Regions combines a diverse range of empirically rich, in-depth case studies, analysis of their rural context specificities, and insights from labour market and migration theories to critically examine the conditions and implications of rural labour migration. Despite its growing political, economic, and social importance, our understanding of international labour migration to Europe’s rural regions remains limited. This edited volume provides intricate descriptions of lived experi- ence, critical theoretical analyses, analytical synthesis, and policy recommendations for this novel and developing phenomenon which has the potential to transform the lives of international migrants and local communities. The book’s 25 authors represent a wide range of social science disciplines, with coverage of a vast range of Europe’s rural regions, and diverse types of rural labour in areas such as horti- culture, shepherding, wild berry picking and fish processing. The volume will be of interest to policy-makers at local, regional, national and European levels, and scholars and students in a broad range of areas, including migration, labour markets, and rural studies. Johan Fredrik Rye is Professor in Sociology at the Department of Sociology and Political Science at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. He has studied various forms of mobility in late modern societies, including international labour migration, domestic migration of youths, and leisure mobilities, combining a range of qualitative and quantitative materials and research methods. Rye is currently leading the international comparative research project Global Labour in Rural Societies (Glarus). Karen O’Reilly is Emeritus Professor of Sociology at Loughborough University and an Independent Research Academic. She has been researching migration since the early 1990s and is author of numerous books and art- icles including The British on the Costa del Sol , Ethnographic methods , and International Migration and Social Theory . She is currently co-investigator on the ESRC-funded project Brexit Brits Abroad and is on the International Advisory Board of Glarus. Routledge Advances in Sociology 289 Thinking Through Dilemmas: Schemas, Frames, and Difficult Decisions Lawrence H. Williams 290 Classifying Fashion, Fashioning Class: Making Sense of Women’s Practices, Perceptions and Tastes Katherine Appleford 291 Women and Work in Ireland: A Half Century of Attitude and Policy Change Margret Fine- Davis 292 Housing and Domestic Abuse: Policy into Practice Yoric Irving- Clarke and Kelly Henderson 293 Mobilising Place Management Claus Lassen and Lea Holst Laursen 294 International Labour Migration to Europe’s Rural Regions Edited by Johan Fredrik Rye and Karen O’Reilly 295 The Subjectivities and Politics of Occupational Risk: Mines, Farms and Auto Factories Alan Hall 296 Civil Society: Between Concepts and Empirical Grounds Edited by Liv Egholm and Lars Bo Kaspersen 297 The Economy of Collaboration: The New Digital Platforms of Production and Consumption Francesco Ramella and Cecilia Manzo For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com/ Routledge- Advances-in-Sociology/ book- series/ SE0511 International Labour Migration to Europe’s Rural Regions Edited by Johan Fredrik Rye and Karen O’Reilly First published 2021 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 selection and editorial matter, Johan Fredrik Rye and Karen O’Reilly; individual chapters, the contributors The right of Johan Fredrik Rye and Karen O’Reilly to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. The Open Access version of this book, available at www.taylorfrancis.com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial- No Derivatives 4.0 license. Trademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in- Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Names: Rye, Johan Fredrik, editor. | O’Reilly, Karen, editor. Title: International labour migration to Europe’s rural regions / edited by Johan Fredrik Rye and Karen O’Reilly. Description: First Edition. | New York: Routledge, 2020. | Series: Routledge advances in sociology | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020026262 (print) | LCCN 2020026263 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367900717 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003022367 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Migrant labor–Europe–Case studies. | Occupational mobility–Europe–Case studies. Classification: LCC HD5856.E78 I68 2020 (print) | LCC HD5856.E78 (ebook) | DDC 331.6/2094091734–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020026262 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020026263 ISBN: 978- 0- 367- 90071- 7 (hbk) ISBN: 978- 1- 003- 02236- 7 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Newgen Publishing UK Contents List of tables ix List of figures x List of contributors xi Acknowledgements xvi SE C T I O N I Transforming Europe’s rural industries 1 1 New perspectives on international labour migration to Europe’s rural regions 3 JOHAN FREDRIK RYE AND KAREN O’REILLY 2 Are the guest- worker programmes still effective? Insights from Romanian migration to Spanish agriculture 22 MONICA Ș ERBAN, YOAN MOLINERO- GERBEAU AND ALEXANDRA DELIU 3 The social and spatial mobility strategies of migrants: Romanian migrants in rural Greece 37 LOUKIA- MARIA FRATSEA AND APOSTOLOS G. PAPADOPOULOS 4 Ghettos, camps and dormitories: migrant workers’ living conditions in enclaves of industrial agriculture in Italy 52 CRISTINA BROVIA AND VALERIA PIRO 5 Lessons from the mountains: mobility and migrations in Euro-Mediterranean agro-pastoralism 70 DOMENICA FARINELLA AND MICHELE NORI 6 Temporary farmworkers and migration transition: on a changing role of the agricultural sector in international labour migration to Poland 86 AGATA GÓRNY AND PAWEŁ KACZMARCZYK viii Contents 7 ‘Living on the edge’? A comparative study of processes of marginalisation among Polish migrants in rural Germany and Norway 104 JAKUB STACHOWSKI AND KAMILA FIAŁKOWSKA 8 Changing labour standards and ‘subordinated inclusion’: Thai migrant workers in the Swedish forest berry industry 121 AINA TOLLEFSEN, CHARLOTTA HEDBERG, MADELEINE ERIKSSON AND LINN AXELSSON S E C T I O N I I Transforming Europe’s rural societies 139 9 Agricultural employers’ representation and rationalisation of their work offer: the ‘benevolent moderator’ 141 JOHAN FREDRIK RYE AND SAM SCOTT 10 Emotions and community development after return migration in the rural Arctic 159 MARIT AURE AND LARISSA RIABOVA 11 Does international labour migration affect internal mobility in rural Norway? 175 MARIE HOLM SLETTEBAK 12 ‘If we do not have the pickers, we do not have the industry’: rural UK under a Brexit shadow 193 KEITH HALFACREE S E C T I O N I I I Concluding remarks 209 13 Farm labour in California and some implications for Europe 211 PHILIP MARTIN 14 The (re)production of the exploitative nature of rural migrant labour in Europe 228 KAREN O’REILLY AND JOHAN FREDRIK RYE Index 246 Tables 6.1 Selected job characteristics of Ukrainian migrants by sector of employment, 2017 94 6.2 Selected characteristics of Ukrainian migrants by sector of employment, 2017. Mazonvian region 96 6.3 Selected characteristics of Ukrainian migrants by sector of employment, 2017. Other regions than the Mazovian region 97 8.1 Costs and earnings of Thai berry pickers (per season) 129 8.2 Distribution of berry pickers by system of payment 131 11.1 Descriptive statistics (variables used in Tables 11.2 and 11.3) 184 11.2 Fixed effects linear regression, out-migration and in-migration of Norwegian-born 185 11.3 Fixed effects linear regression, out- and in- migration of low- and high- educated Norwegian-born 186 11.4 Sensitivity analysis. Fixed effects linear regression with different model specifications 187 13.1 US agricultural employment (including forestry, fishing, and hunting), 2006–2026. 1,000s 220 13.2 Full time and actual average pay of California farm workers, 2016 222 Figures 4.1 The Transformed Littoral Strip (TLS) landscape, 2013 56 4.2 Greenhouses in the Transformed Littoral Strip (TLS), 2013 59 4.3 The agricultural plane around Saluzzo, 2014 62 4.4 Entrance of the camp managed by the association Caritas, summer 2016 64 6.1 Foreigners aged 18 years and more residing in Poland, by regions, 2016 89 6.2 Selected modes of recruitment of Ukrainian workers in various sectors of the Polish economy. Percentages. 2017 100 7.1 Accommodation of seasonal migrant workers in Germany, 2010 113 7.2 An example of migrants’ housing in the Norwegian case 115 8.1 The distribution of reported earnings (USD) after deductions (n=152) 130 Contributors Marit Aure is Professor in Sociology at UiT, The Arctic University of Norway. She holds a Ph.D. in Planning and Community Studies. Her research interests encompass international and national migration and integra- tion, gender, masculinity, employment- related mobility, (coastal) rural and urban development. Aure engages in participatory action research and co-production of knowledge. She is currently leading the international research project Sustainable diverse cities: innovation in integration (Cit-egration). Linn Axelsson is a Research Fellow in Human Geography at Stockholm University. Her research interests include critical border studies, migration governance, international labour migration, and precarious work. She is currently leading a research project on the growing involvement of non- state actors in the regulation of international labour migration. Cristina Brovia is a political scientist. She obtained her Ph.D. in Political Science at the University of Turin and University of Paris 1 – Pantheon Sorbonne, with a thesis addressing the question of seasonal migrant workers’ camps in intensive agricultural areas in northern Italy. Her main research interests concern political sociology, migration in rural areas, ghettos and camps, migrants’ mobilisations, local policy-making linked to migration issues, and integration issues Alexandra Deliu finished her Ph.D. in Sociology at the University of Bucharest and, since 2014, has been is a researcher at the Research Institute for Quality of Life, within the Romanian Academy. Her research interests are focused on topics such as migration and identity, mainly explored with a qualitative methodology including discursive, and narrative analysis. Madeleine Eriksson is Senior Lecturer in Human Geography at Umeå University, Sweden. She has studied representations of the rural and the urban with focus on the northern periphery and urban regeneration and the disciplining of labour migrants. One important element in her research xii List of contributors is the study of representations of ‘the other’ in relation to discourses of globalisation, new forms of mobility and different social categories such as gender, race, and class. Domenica Farinella is Lecturer in Economic and Environmental Sociology at Messina University, Italy. Her recent topics include rural and local studies with a specific concern for change in pastoralism, multifunctionality in agriculture, new peasantries, informal economy, and the southern Italy question. In the last years she has been conducting ethnographic research in sheep dairy value- chains and changes in Sardinian pastoralism. Kamila Fiałkowska is Researcher at the Centre of Migration Research, University of Warsaw. Her research focuses on emigration from Poland, specifically seasonal migration from Poland to Germany and post- accession emigration of Poles to the UK. Her research interests revolve around gender relations in migratory settings, masculinity studies and family relations, construction of national and gender identities, and quali- tative research methods in migration studies. Loukia-Maria Fratsea is Researcher at the Department of Geography, Harokopio University and holds an Integrated Masters in Agricultural Economics and a M.Sc. in Rural Development and Management of Rural Space, both from the Agricultural University of Athens. She is finishing her Ph.D. in Geography (jointly supervised at Harokopio University and Università della Calabria). Her research interests include rural transform- ation, migration and social change, and social stratification and mobility. Agata Górny is Head of Demography and Population Economics, Chair at the Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw, and Deputy Director of the Centre of Migration Research, University of Warsaw; Vice- President of the Committee for Migration Studies at the Polish Academy of Sciences. Her research interests include temporal patterns of migration, illegal migration, citizenship and migration, immigration to Poland, socio- economic integration of immigrants and the research methods in migra- tion studies. Keith Halfacree is Reader at the Department of Geography at Swansea University and an internationally acknowledged specialist in the field of rural studies. He has published widely on key topics in rural migra- tion research, covering both domestic and international migration, and has been in the forefront to develop novel theoretical approaches for the understanding of rurality, rural migration, and rural change. Charlotta Hedberg is Associate Professor in Human Geography at Umeå University, Sweden. Her research deals with migration studies in rela- tion to low-wage labour, rural and regional development, labour market integration, and lifestyle migration. Her research on labour migration List of contributors xiii relates to the example of Thai wild berry pickers in Sweden, which has been analysed through ethnographic research from a transnational and translocal perspective. Paweł Kaczmarczyk is Director of the Centre of Migration Research at the University of Warsaw and an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Economic Sciences, University of Warsaw; IZA fellow, and SOPEMI cor- respondent for Poland at OECD. His main research areas include causes and consequences of labour migration, highly skilled mobility, method- ology of migration research, migration policy, labour economics, popula- tion economics and demography, and international economics. Philip Martin is Professor Emeritus of Agricultural and Resource Economics at the University of California-Davis, US, Editor of Rural Migration News , and the author of numerous research publications on migration and farm labour. His most recent book is The Prosperity Paradox: Fewer and More Vulnerable Farm Workers (2020). Michele Nori is based at the Global Governance Programme of the European University Institute (EUI), Firenze. A tropical agronomist as educational background, with a Ph.D. in rural sociology, he has worked extensively in pastoral areas in Africa, Asia, and recently in the Mediterranean region. He has recently completed a Marie Curie Fellowship on migration and pastoralism. Nori is currently engaged with the ERC-funded PASTRES project which studies the interfaces among pastoralism, resilience and uncertainty. Yoan Molinero-Gerbeau is Ph.D. in Political Science and International Relation and Researcher at the Institute of Economy, Geography and Demography (CSIC) at the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC). He has been working for several years on the link between migrations, agriculture and global chains from an International Relations perspective, principally developing the world-ecology perspective. Karen O’Reilly is Emeritus Professor of Sociology at Loughborough University and an Independent Research Academic. She has been researching migration since the early 1990s and is author of numerous books and articles including The British on the Costa del Sol , Ethnographic Methods , and International Migration and Social Theory . She is currently co-investigator on the ESRC-funded project Brexit Brits Abroad, and is on the International Advisory Board of Glarus. Apostolos G. Papadopoulos is Director of the Institute of Social Research (IKE) at the National Centre of Social Research (EKKE) and Professor of Rural Sociology and Geography at Harokopio University. He is Chair of the CIHEAM Advisory Board and Vice-President of the European Sociological Association. His research has focused on family farming, xiv List of contributors rural development and policy, socio-spatial transformations in rural areas, social class and stratification, international migration, migrant labour and integration. Valeria Piro is a Post-Doc Fellow at the Department of Sociology at the University of Padova, working on a project concerning migrant labour conditions in meat processing plants. She is currently teaching Sociology of Migration at the University of Bologna. She holds a Ph.D. in Sociology and Methodology of Social Research. Her main research interests con- cern migration and labour studies, spatial sociology, and ethnographic methodologies. Larissa Riabova is Acting Research Director and Head of Department of Social Policy in the North at the Institute for Economic Studies of the Kola Science Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences. She holds a Ph.D. in Economics. Her research interests are social sustainability, social policy and community studies in the Arctic. She studies mining, forestry and fishery-based communities, and is a Co-Editor of the peer-reviewed academic journal Barents Studies: Peoples, Economies and Politics Johan Fredrik Rye is Professor in Sociology at the Department of Sociology and Political Science at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. He has studied various forms of mobility in late modern soci- eties, including international labour migration, domestic migration of youths, and leisure mobilities, combining a range of qualitative and quan- titative materials and research methods. Rye is currently leading the inter- national comparative research project Global Labour in Rural Societies (Glarus). Sam Scott is Senior Lecturer in Geography at the University of Gloucestershire, UK. His research focuses on international labour migra- tion and workplace exploitation. Recently he has been involved in the Global Labour in Rural Societies (Glarus) project funded by the Norwegian Research Council (2017–2021) and in work for the UK Government’s Director of Labour Market Enforcement (DLME) looking at non- compliance and precarious work in the UK labour market (2018– 2020). Monica Ș erban is a Senior Researcher at the Research Institute for Quality of Life, Romanian Academy. She holds a Ph.D. in Sociology. Her current research interests are clustering around migration policies from the per- spective of origin area, return migration and re-migration. Marie Holm Slettebak is a Ph.D. candidate in Sociology at the Department of Sociology and Political Science at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Her current research focuses on the interplay of migra- tion, labour markets and social inequality. Her research interests include List of contributors xv migration, mobility, social inequality, rural and urban areas, and quantita- tive research methods. Jakub Stachowski is Ph.D. candidate at the Department of Sociology and Political Science, NTNU. Jakub explores the process of integration of Eastern and Central European migrants in rural areas in Norway. By using ethnographic methods and employing the perspective of migrants, he studies spatial, labour-market related, social and transnational aspects of migrants’ integration in the rural community. Research areas and interests include labour migration, transnationalism, urban and rural areas, crimin- ality, social theory, and ethnographic research methods. Aina Tollefsen is Associate Professor in Human Geography at Umeå University, Sweden and has researched processes of migration, return, and circulation in different geographical contexts. She has conducted biograph- ical interviews with labour migrants and refugees and expert interviews in Sweden, the US, and Mexico. Her experience includes research on globalising working conditions in a transnational corporation, drawing on interviews with workers in factories in South Africa, Mexico, and Sweden. Acknowledgements The book has been initiated and edited as part of the 2017–2022 Global Labour in Rural Societies research project financed by the Norwegian Research Council (grant no. 261854/ F10). All chapters have been peer reviewed and the editors wish to thank the many external reviewers for their constructive comments to the chapters. Funding from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Harokopio University (Greece), Umeå University (Sweden) and Centro de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales del CSIC (Spain) has made possible Open Access publishing of the volume. newgenprepdf Section I Transforming Europe’s rural industries Chapter 1 New perspectives on international labour migration to Europe’s rural regions Johan Fredrik Rye and Karen O’Reilly Migrants at work transforming rural Europe International labour migrants no longer settle mainly in urban gateways but are more evenly spread across Europe’s urban and rural spaces (McAreavey 2018, Bock et al . 2016, Corrado et al . 2016). Estimates suggest that more than 5 million international migrants currently live in the EU’s rural regions, though actual numbers are likely to be even higher (Natale et al . 2019). In some rural industries, such as horticulture and food processing, migrant workers make up the majority in manual, low-skilled positions, and many rural communi- ties today host large populations of migrant workers from across the globe (Rye and Scott 2018). As a result, even the very idea of everyday rural life is changing as traditional notions associating the rural with a quaint backward- ness and sedentarism are challenged by changing social dynamics, cosmopol- itanism, and mobility (Burdsey 2013, Woods 2018, 2007, Rye 2018, Bell and Osti 2010). In this book we provide rich detailed descriptions and theoret- ical analyses of this novel phenomenon which has the potential to transform the lives of both the international labour migrants arriving in Europe’s rural regions and the rural communities in which they arrive. At the time of concluding the volume – spring 2020, in the midst of the Covid-19 pandemic – the complexities of the migrant labour phenomenon in Europe’s rural regions were more evident than ever. State borders – as well as key aspects of everyday life inside the borders – were practically shut down. Many migrant workers in the food industries could not travel to workplaces abroad to make a living for themselves and their households. Others, in place, were severely affected by government measures to limit the spread of the virus, which, for some, led to reduced work hours or even lay-offs. The shut- down also created havoc for other actors in the food production industries, including fears for fields neither planted nor harvested, short- and long-term market failures and large numbers of bankruptcies. In response, a variety of regulative measures were enacted to counter effects of the pandemic that demonstrates the crucial role of migrant labour in Europe’s food industries. For instance, the European Commission (2020) issued, in late March, an