New Mexico New Mexico edited by John G. Douglass and william M. Graves The Colonial Period in The ameriCan SouThweST PiMeria alta and the New Mexico aNd the PiMería alta New Mexico PiMería alta The Colonial Period in The ameriCan SouThweST and the edited by John G. douglass and william M. Graves U N i v e r s i t y P r e s s o f c o l o r a d o Boulder © 2017 by University Press of Colorado Published by University Press of Colorado 5589 Arapahoe Avenue, Suite 206C Boulder, Colorado 80303 All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America The University Press of Colorado is a proud member of Association of American University Presses. The University Press of Colorado is a cooperative publishing enterprise supported, in part, by Adams State University, Colorado State University, Fort Lewis College, Metropolitan State University of Denver, Regis University, University of Colorado, University of Northern Colorado, Utah State University, and Western State Colorado University. ∞ This paper meets the requirements of the ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper). ISBN: 978-1-60732-573-4 (cloth) ISBN: 978-1-60732-574-1 (ebook) Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Douglass, John G., 1968– editor. | Graves, William M., editor. Title: New Mexico and the Pimería Alta : the colonial period in the American Southwest / edited by John G. Douglass and William M. Graves. Description: Boulder : University Press of Colorado, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016044391| ISBN 9781607325734 (cloth) | ISBN 9781607325741 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Spaniards—Pimería Alta (Mexico and Ariz.)—History. | Spaniards—Southwest, New—History. | Indians of North America—First contact with Europeans—Pimería Alta (Mexico and Ariz.)—History. | Indians of North America—First contact with Europeans— Southwest, New—History. | Ethnoarchaeology—Pimería Alta (Mexico and Ariz.) | Ethnoarchaeology—Southwest, New. Classification: LCC F799 .N47 2017 | DDC 979/.01—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016044391 An electronic version of this book is freely available, thanks to the support of libraries working with Knowledge Unlatched. KU is a collaborative initiative designed to make high-quality books open access for the public good. The open access ISBN for the PDF version of this book is 978-1-60732-701-1; for the ePUB version the open access ISBN is 978-1-60732- 722-6. More information about the initiative and links to the open-access version can be found at www.knowledgeunlatched.org. Cover photograph, Ruins of a room block and the San Gregorio de Abó church at Abó Pueblo in the Salinas Pueblo Missions National Monument, by William M. Graves To Jane Dempsey Douglass, Gordon Douglass, and the late Ralph Douglass for their inspirational examples and to Jill Onken for her love and To Helena Rodrigues and Matilde Graves for their love and encouragement. | vii contents List of Figures | ix List of Tables | xiii Foreword by David Hurst Thomas | xv Preface | xxi Acknowledgments | xxiii 1. New Mexico and the Pimería Alta: A Brief Introduction to the Colonial Period in the American Southwest John G. Douglass and William M. Graves | 3 Part 1. the New Mexico colony: Native and colonist worlds colliding 2. “The Peace That Was Granted Had Not Been Kept”: Coronado in the Tiguex Province, 1540–1542 Matthew F. Schmader | 49 3. Meeting in Places: Seventeenth-Century Puebloan and Spanish Landscapes Phillip O. Leckman | 75 4. Hopi Weaving and the Colonial Encounter: A Study of Persistence through Change Laurie D. Webster | 115 viii | Contents 5. The Pueblo World Transformed: Alliances, Factionalism, and Animosities in the Northern Rio Grande, 1680–1700 Matthew Liebmann, Robert Preucel, and Joseph Aguilar | 143 6. Comanche New Mexico: The Eighteenth Century Severin Fowles, Jimmy Arterberry, Lindsay Montgomery, and Heather Atherton | 157 7. Aquí Me Quedo : Vecino Origins and the Settlement Archaeology of the Rio del Oso Grant, New Mexico J. Andrew Darling and B. Sunday Eiselt | 187 8. Becoming Vecinos: Civic Identities in Late Colonial New Mexico Kelly L. Jenks | 213 9. Moquis , Kastiilam , and the Trauma of History: Hopi Oral Traditions of Seventeenth-Century Franciscan Missionary Abuses Thomas E. Sheridan and Stewart B. Koyiyumptewa | 239 Part 2. divergent histories and experiences in the Pimería alta, southern arizona 10. Population Dynamics in the Pimería Alta, ad 1650–1750 Lauren E. Jelinek and Dale S. Brenneman | 263 11. Missions, Livestock, and Economic Transformations in the Pimería Alta Barnet Pavao-Zuckerman | 289 12. Life in Tucson, on the Northern Frontier of the Pimería Alta J. Homer Thiel | 311 13. O’odham Irrigated Agriculture Response to Colonization on the Middle Gila River, Southern Arizona Colleen Strawhacker | 331 Part 3. discussion and comparative viewpoints 14. The Archaeology of Colonialism in the American Southwest and Alta California: Some Observations and Comments Kent G. Lightfoot | 355 15. Materiality Matters: Colonial Transformations Spanning the Southwestern and Southeastern Borderlands David Hurst Thomas | 379 List of Contributors | 415 Index | 417 | ix figures 1.1. Map of the American Southwest, including the approximate location of both the Pimería Alta and the New Mexico Colony | 6 1.2. Map of approximate early Spanish colonial routes through modern-day Arizona | 13 1.3. Map of approximate early Spanish colonial routes through modern-day New Mexico | 14 2.1. Approximate route of the Francisco Vázquez de Coronado expedition, February 1540 to June 1542 | 52 2.2. Map of Vázquez de Coronado’s “Tiguex Province” (middle Rio Grande valley) | 54 2.3. Sample of sixteenth-century metal artifacts recovered from Piedras Marcadas Pueblo | 64 2.4. Military-related metal sixteenth-century metal artifacts recovered from Piedras Marcadas Pueblo | 65 x | Figures 2.5. Sample of slingstones recovered from surface context at Piedras Marcadas Pueblo | 68 3.1. LA 162’s location in the Middle Rio Grande Valley | 79 3.2. Local watersheds and drainage systems in the vicinity of LA 162 | 80 3.3. North-south elevation profile of the Arroyo San Pedro watershed | 81 3.4. Major Early Classic–period sites in the East Mountains | 83 3.5. Site map of LA 162 illustrating major divisions and roomblocks identified by Nels Nelson (1914) | 84 3.6. Map of the seventeenth-century plaza group at LA 162 | 85 3.7. Rectilinear structure constructed in the southwest corner of Paako’s seventeenth-century plaza | 89 3.8. Corrals erected within Paako’s seventeenth-century plaza | 91 3.9. Precontact- and contact-period Arroyo San Pedro community settlement patterns | 94 3.10. Colonial-period water-management features at Paako | 95 3.11. Estimated precontact-period ceramic density along the Arroyo San Pedro floodplain | 96 3.12. Estimated contact-period ceramic density along the Arroyo San Pedro floodplain | 97 3.13. Density of major Middle Rio Grande pueblo sites during the Early Classic Period | 101 3.14. Density of major Middle Rio Grande pueblo sites during the contact and colonial periods | 102 3.15. Paako and neighboring communities at the beginning of the contact period | 103 3.16. Paako and neighboring communities in the mid-seventeenth century | 104 4.1. Map of Hopi Reservation | 117 4.2. Excerpt of map by Don Bernardo de Miera y Pacheco, ca. 1760, illustrating the “Dress and Dance of the Indians of New Mexico” | 126 4.3. Wàlpi kiva interior showing Hopi man weaving on a traditional upright Pueblo loom, 1899 | 131 6.1. The Vista Verde Site (LA 75747), located within Rio Grande Gorge at the confluence of the Rio Grande and the Rio Pueblo | 165 Figures | xi 6.2. Probable Jicarilla Apache rock art from the Rio Grande Gorge | 167 6.3. Lightly abraded and pecked rock art at the Manby Trailhead Site (LA 102341) | 167 6.4. Map of the central tipi encampment (Area 6) at the Vista Verde Site | 169 6.5. Scratched and abraded rock art from the Vista Verde Site (detail of Panel 2014-009A) | 171 6.6. Scratched and abraded rock art from the Vista Verde Site (Panel 2008-353) | 171 6.7. Scratched and abraded rock art from the Vista Verde Site (panel 2008-408A) | 172 6.8. Scratched and abraded rock art from the Vista Verde Site (Panel 2008-374B, overlying graffiti removed) | 173 6.9. Scratched and abraded rock art from the Vista Verde Site (panel 2008-298) | 174 6.10 Scratched and abraded rock art from the Vista Verde Site (Panel 2008-059, overlying graffiti removed) | 174 6.11. A. Panel 2009-234 at the Vista Verde Site (overlying graffiti removed). B. Rock art details from the Tolar Site, Wyoming (based upon Loendorf and Olsen 2003) | 175 6.12. Scratched and abraded rock art from the Rio Grande Gorge, just north of the Vista Verde Site (Panel 2009-209) | 179 7.1. Villages mentioned in the text | 190 7.2. Changes in population growth rate from 1700 to 1900 using the formula for exponential population growth | 192 7.3. The expansion of the Vecino Homeland after Nostrand (1970, 1975, 1980) | 194 7.4. Rio del Oso grant genealogy | 198 7.5. Early and late component structures in the Rio del Oso Valley | 201 8.1. Sample of twenty-five excavated Hispanic Sites | 220 8.2. Pueblo potting areas | 222 9.1. Hopi History Project Workshop with the Cultural Resources Advisory Task Team (CRATT) of the Hopi Cultural Preservation Office, Kykotsmovi, Arizona, October 21, 2009 | 247 9.2. Katsina Buttes (Kaktsintuyqa), where Hopis performed ceremonies in secret during the Franciscan mission period | 248 xii | Figures 9.3. Ruins of mission church at Awat’ovi on Antelope Mesa | 252 10.1. The Pimería Alta | 265 10.2. O’odham distribution in the Pimería Alta as reported by Kino and Manje | 268 10.3. Pimería Alta sites and landmarks | 270 11.1. Map of the Pimería Alta in the eighteenth century | 291 11.2. Summary of zooarchaeological remains from Mission San Agustín | 299 11.3. Summary of zooarchaeological remains from Mission Cocóspera | 299 12.1. Map of the Pimería Alta | 313 12.2. A Piman bean pot found in a trash-filled pit inside the Tucson Presidio | 319 12.3. Northern Puebloan ceramic sherds found in the Tucson Presidio | 320 12.4. Brightly colored Mexican majolica vessels were used by women at the Tucson Presidio to serve meals | 321 12.5. Religious medal and forty-four European glass beads found in a soil-mining pit adjacent to the Tucson Presidio | 323 12.6. Brass gunstock appliqués on an escopeta found in New Mexico | 324 13.1. Map of major Spanish missions and presidios in Arizona and the study area of focus in this chapter | 333 13.2. Settlement extent of O’odham villages along the middle Gila River during the historic period | 339 13.3. Population numbers of the middle Gila River Valley from historic documents. | 340 13.4. Map of middle Gila River historic canals and villages | 343 13.5. Estimated irrigated acreage in the late historic period, select years, 1850–1921 | 346 13.6. Grain production on Gila River Indian Community | 347 15.1. Plan view of the Spanish mission at Abó (New Mexico) after its first reconstruction circa 1652 | 395 15.2. This mission bell was found at San Cristóbal Pueblo in New Mexico’s Galisteo Basin | 400 | xiii tables 5.1. XRF provenience of obsidian artifacts found at revolt-era sites of the Jemez Valley | 148 7.1. Comparison of late colonial and Vecino occupations in the Rio del Oso | 203 8.1. Sample of Hispanic New Mexican sites | 218 11.1. Inventories of livestock holdings at Pimería Alta missions and presidios | 298 | xv F o r e w o r d Columbian Consequences in Quarter-century Perspective d a v i d h u r S T T h o m a S DOI: 10.5876/9781607325741.c000 John G. Douglass and William M. Graves, the editors of this volume, have told me that the Columbian Consequences project served as a catalyst for the initial sym- posium entitled “Transformations during the Colonial Era: Divergent Histories in the American Southwest,” subsequently published as this volume. They also asked me to write a few words about the Columbian Consequences effort, from a quarter-century perspective. The roots of Columbian Consequences run back to the late 1980s, a time of con- siderable stress and not a little self-reflection in the Americanist archaeological community. A decade of repatriation and reburial debate would culminate in the 1990 The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) legislation. Competing paradigms of processual and postprocessual archaeology generated lively conversations about future directions of archaeological theory. The rapid growth of applied archaeology (in the form of cultural resource man- agement) tested the conventionally academic structure of the archaeological profession. Long-standing issues of gender bias clouded archaeological interpre- tations of the past and the practice of archaeology in the present. xvi | Foreword With the Columbian Quincentenary just a few years off, the Society of American Archaeology (SAA) puzzled its role in anticipating the inevitable events that would surround the 500th anniversary of European–Native American inter- actions. I was a member of the Executive Committee of the SAA at the time, and the president asked me spearhead the society’s efforts for observing the Columbian Quincentenary. Thanks to the support and encouragement of key SAA officers Don Fowler, Prudence Rice, Bruce Smith, and Jerry Sabloff, we were able to develop a plan. After exploring a number of options with the board, we settled upon a series of topical seminars that we dubbed Columbian Consequences. These nine public seminars, to be held over a three-year span, were designed to generate an accurate and factual assessment of what did—and what did not—transpire as a result of the Columbian encounter. We specifically tasked ourselves to probe the social, demographic, ecological, ideological, and human repercussions of European–Native American encounters across the Spanish Borderlands, spreading the word among both the scholarly community and the greater public at large. Although sponsored by the SAA, the Columbian Consequences enterprise rapidly transcended the traditional scope of archaeological inquiry, drawing together a diverse assortment of personalities and perspectives. We invited leading scholars of the day to synthesize current thinking about specific geographical settings across the Spanish Borderlands, which extend from St. Augustine (Florida) to San Francisco (California). Each overview was designed to provide a Native American context, a history of European involvement, and a summary of schol- arly research. The structure was fairly simple. Each of three consecutive SAA annual meet- ings (in 1988, 1989, and 1990) hosted three Columbian Consequences seminars. The resulting three volumes were published by the Smithsonian Institution Press, which remarkably published each volume less than a year after the seminar papers were presented. The initial book, entitled Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderlands West (Thomas 1989), tackled the European–Native American inter- face from the Pacific Slope across the southwestern heartland to East Texas, from Russian Fort Ross to southern Baja California. The archaeologists involved addressed material culture evidence regarding contact period sociopolitics, eco- nomics, iconography, and physical environment. Other authors attempted to provide a critical balance from the perspectives of American history, Native American studies, art history, ethnohistory, and geography. In the intermediate volume— Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderlands East (Thomas 1990)—nearly three dozen scholars pursued a similar agenda across La Florida, the greater Southeast, and the Caribbean. Foreword | xvii Volume 3 of Columbian Consequences (Thomas 1991), entitled The Spanish Border- lands in Pan-American Perspective, explored Borderlands processes in action—past, present, and future. The volume began with a look at previous Columbus- related “celebrations,” particularly the Columbian Quatercentenary, manifest as the Chicago World’s Fair of 1893, which heavily impacted the next century of Borderlands scholarship. Several authors explored Spanish mission strategies across the Borderlands, particularly addressing various Native American sur- vival strategies. Some participants also examined then-revolutionary approaches to the demographics of European contact. The Columbian Consequences enterprise was grounded in what I termed a “cub- ist” perspective (Thomas 1989), an argument for approaching the contact-era past from multiple directions simultaneously. I believed that an analogy to the early twentieth-century cubist movement was appropriate because of the way the cubists deconstructed and invalidated the restrictive conventions that had come to dominate Western art. Conventional canons of Renaissance art held, in effect, that reality is best perceived from a single, time-honored perspective, task- ing artists to perfect their craft for abbreviating three-dimensional visual realities into artificial, two-dimensional art forms. Cubists such as Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque broke with this European illusionist tradition by arguing that one’s perspective can (and should) be shifted at will. Questioning the pretense of absolute visual truth, cubists rejected clas- sical norms for the human figure, refusing to paint their images as snapshots of objects as they appeared momentarily to the eye. Columbian Consequences was structured along cubist lines by approaching the past from multiple directions simultaneously. Traditional Borderlands scholar- ship was viewed like the works of the Renaissance masters. Both involved a snapshot-of-the-past approach, bent on capturing perceived reality from a single perspective. Just as the Renaissance masters used light, color, and texture to gen- erate their single-view imagery, Borderlands scholarship had long championed special-interest groups, promoting and perpetuating their single-point version of the “truth”—the way it really was. While not rejecting most conventional Borderlands scholarship outright, we (like the cubists) argued that the past was best addressed by fresh, sometimes conflicting, perspectives as well. With this cubist imperative in mind, we scanned the Borderlands for par- ticipants who represented both traditional and novel perspectives, attempting to augment conventional Borderlands scholarship with fresher insights from historical archaeology, Native American studies, historical demography, and ethnohistory. At its base, the Columbian Consequences seminars tried to serve as an overarching mechanism for balance, criticism, and synthesis—reassessing throughout the importance of recognizing multiple pasts and the necessity of decoupling intellectual inquiry from its associated mythologies. xviii | Foreword The ninety-three chapters of Columbian Consequences enlisted a broad sweep of scholarly opinions from a diverse range of disciplines. In all, there were 64 archaeologists, 11 historians, 9 physical anthropologists, 9 ethnohistorians, 6 cul- tural anthropologists, 5 art historians, and 3 geographers. Included in this group were four archaeologists hailing from Latin America, two Native American scholars, one Franciscan historian, and one Jesuit ethnohistorian. Today, of course, looking back at the roster from a quarter-century perspec- tive, our “diverse range” was disappointingly narrow, even parochial. Even at the time, this shortcoming was apparent; as I wrote in 1992, “the results remain some- what frustrating and dissatisfying. Any objective assessment of the Columbian Consequences inquiry. . . . would point out that not only are the Native American, Latin American, and Hispanic perspectives seriously underrepresented, but less than one-third of the participants are women . . . despite our best efforts to elicit an extended suite of opinion and perspective, the final result remains biased toward white, Anglo, male scholarship” (Thomas 1992:615). Further, like some of the cubist paintings themselves, the results of Columbian Consequences were not uniformly pleasing or universally accepted by the pub- lic. Conventional Renaissance scholars had, to be sure, produced exceptional artwork more pleasing to the eye than those of the cubists. Some readers of Columbian Consequences were disappointed that the series did not produce a “defin- itive history” of Hispanic–Native American interactions across the Borderlands. Grounded in the belief that multiple distinctive histories had played out during the Columbian encounters, we explored the range and evolution of Hispanic objectives, but also considered Native American counterstrategies for coping with European intrusions. Some critics, more personally comfortable with their own single-perspective histories, resented and protested the intrusion of such collateral, sometimes contrarian viewpoints. Choosing diversity at the expense of harmony, we broke ranks with traditional Borderlands historiography by exploring non-Hispanic, nonwritten records of the past (including archaeology, oral history, and tribal tradition). Some grumbled that arguments from oral his- tory and tribal tradition were “out of place” in serious Borderlands scholarship. The Columbian Consequences exercise highlighted some of the significant obstacles remaining for minorities and women seeking to pursue careers in scholarship—Borderlands or otherwise. The series sold pretty well, with Choice magazine selecting Columbian Consequences volumes 1 and 2 as Outstanding Academic Books of 1989 and 1990 (respectively). Recognizing the growing tensions over repatriation issues and acknowledging the acute challenges facing Indian people seeking higher education, all royalties from Columbian Consequences were earmarked to establish the Native American Scholarship Fund of the Society for American Archaeology. Since renamed the Arthur C. Parker Scholarship, these funds have been augmented by royalties from dozens Foreword | xix of additional archaeological books and continue to support archaeological train- ing for Native American students. The contributions in the present volume continue in the Columbian Conse quen- ces tradition. The editors emphasize that their intent was not an all-encompassing overview of the American Southwest. They argue instead that this book is the first since Colombian Consequences to address the broader themes of colonialism in a number of case studies from the Greater Southwest. In his overview, Kent G. Lightfoot (chapter 14) agrees these chapters underscore the promise of the American Southwest for new directions in the archaeology of colonialism, par- ticularly in exploring the distinctive historical trajectories that unfolded there. He adds that the major advances in the archaeology of colonialism, as clearly demonstrated in this volume, set the stage for another Columbian Consequences – style synthesis and critique of the Spanish Borderlands. refereNces cited Thomas, David Hurst, ed. 1989. Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderlands West. Columbian Consequences, vol. 1. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Thomas, David Hurst, ed. 1990. Archaeological and Historical Perspectives on the Spanish Borderlands East. Columbian Consequences, vol. 2. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Thomas, David Hurst, ed. 1991. The Spanish Borderlands in Pan-American Perspective. Columbian Consequences, vol. 3. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. Thomas, David Hurst. 1992. “A Retrospective Look at Columbian Consequences.” American Antiquity 57 (4): 613–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/280825.