Standard Handbook of Broadcast Engineering ii Additional updates relating to broadcast engineering in general, and this book in particular, can be found at the Standard Handbook of Broadcast Engineering web site: www.tvhandbook.com The tvhandbook.com web site supports the professional audio/video community with news, updates, and product information relating to the broadcast, post production, and business/indus- trial applications of digital video. Check the site regularly for news, updated chapters, and special events related to audio/video engineering. The technologies encompassed by the Standard Handbook of Broadcast Engineer- ing are changing rapidly, with new standards proposed and adopted each month. Changing mar- ket conditions and regulatory issues are adding to the rapid flow of news and information in this area. Specific services found at www.tvhandbook.com include: • Audio/Video Technology News . News reports and technical articles on the latest develop- ments in digital radio and television, both in the U.S. and around the world. Check in at least once a month to see what's happening in the fast-moving area of digital broadcasting. • Resource Center . Check for the latest information on professional and broadcast audio/video systems. The Resource Center provides updates on implementation and standardization efforts, plus links to related web sites. • tvhandbook.com Update Port . Updated material for the Standard Handbook of Broadcast Engineering is posted on the site each month. Material available includes updated sections and chapters in areas of rapidly advancing technologies. In addition to the resources outlined above, detailed information is available on other books in the McGraw-Hill Video/Audio Series. iii Standard Handbook of Broadcast Engineering Jerry C. Whitaker and K. Blair Benson Editors McGraw-Hill New York San Francisco Washington D.C. 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MHID 0-07-145100-5 ISBN 978-0-07-145100-0 v For Christy and Tara You never really leave the broadcast business... vi Other books in the McGraw-Hill Video/Audio Series The McGraw-Hill Video/Audio series continues to expand with new books on a variety of topics of importance to engineers and technicians involved in professional media. Current offerings include: • Standard Handbook of Video and Television Engineering , 4th edition, Jerry C. Whitaker and K. Blair Benson, editors, 2003 • Standard Handbook of Audio and Radio Engineering , 2nd edition, Jerry C. Whitaker and K. Blair Benson, editors, 2001 • Master Handbook of Audio Production , Jerry. C. Whitaker, 2002 • Master Handbook of Video Production , Jerry C. Whitaker, 2002 • Audio/Video Protocol Handbook , Jerry C. Whitaker, 2002 • Audio/Video Professional's Field Manual , Jerry C. Whitaker, editor, 2001 • DTV Handbook: The Revolution in Digital Video , 3rd edition, Jerry C. Whitaker, 2001 • Television Receivers , Jerry C. Whitaker, 2001 • Video Display Engineering , Jerry C. Whitaker, 2001 • Digital Television Fundamentals , 2nd edition, Michael Robin and Michel Poulin, 2000 • Video Compression Demystified , Peter D. Symes, 2001 • DTV Survival Guide , Jim Boston, 2000 • Data Broadcasting: Understanding the ATSC Data Broadcast Standard; Richard Chernock, Regis Crinon, Michael Dolan, and John Mick; 2001 • PSIP: Program and System Information Protocol , Mark K. Eyer, 2003 vii Contents Contributors ix Preface xi Section 1: Frequency Bands, Propagation, and Modulation 1-1 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 1-9 Propagation 1-19 Frequency Sources and References 1-45 Modulation Systems and Characteristics 1-67 Section 2: Radio Transmission Systems 2-1 Radio Broadcast Systems 2-5 Radio STL Systems 2-21 Digital Radio Systems 2-57 IBOC AM Digital Radio System 2-69 IBOC FM Digital Radio System 2-79 Section 3: Television Transmission Systems 3-1 Television Transmission Standards 3-9 Ghost Canceling Reference Signal 3-35 The ATSC DTV System 3-41 Longley-Rice Propagation Model 3-67 Television Transmitters 3-75 Multiple Transmitter Networks 3-97 DTV Satellite Transmission 3-111 The DVB Standard 3-121 Section 4: RF Interconnection Devices and Systems 4-1 Transmission Line 4-5 RF Combiner and Diplexer Systems 4-17 Section 5: Transmitting Antennas and Systems 5-1 Radio Antenna Principles 5-11 Television Antenna Principles 5-33 Television Transmitting Antennas 5-65 Tower Construction and Maintenance 5-81 Tower Grounding 5-87 Lightning Effects 5-115 Transmitter Building Grounding Practices 5-133 Section 6: Radio Receivers 6-1 Receiver Characteristics 6-5 The Radio Channel 6-27 AM and FM Receivers 6-39 viii Section 7: Television Receivers and Cable/Satellite Distribution Systems 7-1 Television Reception Principles 7-11 ATSC DTV Receiver Systems 7-61 Receiver Antenna Systems 7-85 Cable Television Systems 7-105 Satellite Delivery Systems 7-137 Content Distribution 7-151 Section 8: RF System Maintenance 8-1 RF System Reliability Considerations 8-7 Preventing RF System Failures 8-23 Troubleshooting RF Equipment 8-39 Testing Coaxial Transmission Line 8-57 The Smith Chart 8-63 Standby Power Systems 8-71 Section 9: Test Equipment 9-1 Troubleshooting Digital Systems 9-9 Digital Test Instruments 9-19 Oscilloscopes 9-35 Spectrum Analysis 9-45 Reliability Engineering 9-59 Section 10: Audio Test and Measurement 10-1 Audio Measurement and Analysis 10-5 Audio Phase and Frequency Measurement 10-19 Nonlinear Audio Distortion 10-33 Time Domain Audio Measurements 10-49 Section 11: Video Signal Measurement and Analysis 11-1 Video Information Concepts 11-7 Measurement of Color Displays 11-19 Camera Performance Verification 11-35 Conventional Video Measurements 11-43 Application of the Zone Plate Signal 11-69 Picture Quality Measurement 11-79 DTV Transmission Performance Issues 11-87 ix Contributors Edward W. Allen William F. Bailey Oded Ben-Dov Carl Bentz Richard C. Cabot William Daniel L. E. Donovan Donald G. Fink J. J. Gibson Peter Gloeggler Scott Johnson Cecil Harrison Bruce Hofer L. H. Hoke, Jr. Charles A. Kase J. D. Knox Donald C. Livingston Bernard D. Loughlin D. E. Manners D. Stevens McVoy Robert Metzler W. G. Miller R. J. Peffer Skip Pizzi Ken Pohlmann Krishna Praba Dalton H. Pritchard Wilbur L. Pritchard Kishore Manghnani Chandy Nilakantan John Norgard Ulrich L. Rohde Joseph L. Stern Robert A. Surette John T. Wilner J. G. Zahnen Some of the chapters authored by these contributors have been adapted from the McGraw-Hill Standard Handbook of Video and Television Engineering , 3rd edition, and the Standard Hand- book of Audio/Radio Engineering , 2nd edition. Used with permission. All rights reserved. xi Preface The broadcast industry has embarked on the most significant transition of technologies and busi- ness models in the history of radio and television. Dramatic advancements in computer systems, imaging, display, and compression technologies have all vastly reshaped the technical landscape, and theses have all affected broadcasting. For television, the transition to digital television (DTV) is already well underway; and for radio, digital audio broadcasting (DAB) is beginning to take hold. These changes give rise to a new book in the McGraw-Hill Video/Audio Series, the Standard Handbook of Broadcast Engineering . This handbook continues the rich tradition of past offerings, examining analog and digital broadcast technologies, including AM radio, FM radio, DAB, NTSC, and DTV. This book is a companion volume to the other landmark handbooks in the McGraw-Hill Video/Audio Series: • Standard Handbook of Video and Television Engineering , 4rd ed., which focuses on video information theory, production standards and equipment, and digital coding. • Standard Handbook of Audio and Radio Engineering , 2nd ed., which focuses on audio cap- ture, storage, and reproduction systems. The Standard Handbook of Broadcast Engineering picks up where these books leave off—cover- ing in considerable detail the transmission/reception aspects of broadcasting. In earlier editions of these cornerstone books, the transmission elements of radio and television were included along with the production elements. However, as the handbooks have grown, and as the scope of broadcasting has expanded to encompass both analog and digital transmission, the practical lim- itations of page count for a printed book come into play. Therefore, to maximize the amount of information that can be made available to readers, the radio and television broadcast/reception elements have been separated into this stand-alone publication. About the Book The Standard Handbook of Broadcast Engineering examines the technologies of radio and tele- vision broadcasting. The underlying technologies of both conventional (analog) and digital tele- vision systems are examined, and extensive examples are provided to explain the fundamental concepts. New developmental efforts also are explained and the benefits of the work are out- lined. This publication is directed toward technical and engineering personnel involved in the design, specification, installation, and maintenance of broadcast transmission systems. The basic principles of analog and digital transmission are discussed, with emphasis on how the underlying technologies influence the ultimate applications. Extensive references are provided to aid in understanding the material presented. Because of the rapidly changing nature of broadcast technologies in general, and digital radio/ television in particular, McGraw-Hill and the Editor-in-Chief have established an Internet site to support this book ( http://www.tvhandbook.com ). Visitors can find news articles, revised chap- ters, new chapters, background information, and links to audio/video standards organizations. xii Structure In any large handbook, finding the information that a reader needs can be a major undertaking. The sheer size of an 1000-plus page book makes finding a specific table, reference, or tutorial section a challenge. For this reason, the Standard Handbook of Broadcast Engineering has been organized into—essentially—eleven separate “books.” The section titles listed in the Table of Contents outline the scope of the handbook and each section is self-contained. The section intro- ductions include a detailed table of contents and a complete listing of references cited in the sec- tion. It is the goal of this approach to make the book easier to use and more useful on the job. In addition, a master subject index is provided at the end of the book. Sources of Information The editor has made every effort to cover the subject of broadcast technology in a comprehensive manner. Extensive references are provided at the end of each chapter to direct readers to sources of additional information. Considerable detail has been included on the Advanced Television Systems Committee (ATSC) digital television (DTV) system. These chapters are based on documents published by the ATSC, and the editor gratefully acknowledges this contribution. Within the limits of a practical page count, there are always more items that could be exam- ined in greater detail. Excellent books on the subject of broadcast engineering are available that cover areas that may not be addressed in this handbook, notably the National Association of Broadcaster’s NAB Engineering Handbook , 9th edition, and the Proceedings of the NAB Broad- cast Engineering Conference , published annually by NAB. For more information, see the NAB Web site at http://www.nab.org. The field of science encompassed by radio and television engineering is broad and exciting. It is an area of growing importance to market segments of all types and—of course—to the public. It is the intent of the Standard Handbook of Broadcast Engineering to bring these diverse con- cepts and technologies together in an understandable form. Jerry C. Whitaker Editor-in-Chief 1-1 Section 1 Frequency Bands, Propagation, and Modulation The usable spectrum of electromagnetic radiation frequencies extends over a range from below 100 Hz for power distribution to 10 20 Hz for the shortest X rays. The lower frequencies are used primarily for terrestrial broadcasting and communications. The higher frequencies include visi- ble and near-visible infrared and ultraviolet light, and X rays. The frequencies typically of inter- est to RF engineers range from 30 kHz to 30 GHz. Low Frequency (LF): 30 to 300 kHz The LF band is used for around-the-clock communications services over long distances and where adequate power is available to overcome high levels of atmospheric noise. Applications include: • Radionavigation • Fixed/maritime communications and navigation • Aeronautical radionavigation • Low-frequency broadcasting (Europe) • Underwater submarine communications (up to about 30 kHz) Medium Frequency (MF): 300 kHz to 3 MHz The low-frequency portion of this band is used for around-the-clock communication services over moderately long distances. The upper portion of the MF band is used principally for moder- ate-distance voice communications. Applications in this band include: • AM radio broadcasting (535.5 to 1605.5 kHz) • Radionavigation • Fixed/maritime communications • Aeronautical radionavigation 1-2 Section One • Fixed and mobile commercial communications • Amateur radio • Standard time and frequency services High Frequency (HF): 3 to 30 MHz This band provides reliable medium-range coverage during daylight and, when the transmission path is in total darkness, worldwide long-distance service. The reliability and signal quality of long-distance service depends to a large degree upon ionospheric conditions and related long- term variations in sunspot activity affecting skywave propagation. Applications include: • Shortwave broadcasting • Fixed and mobile service • Telemetry • Amateur radio • Fixed/maritime mobile • Standard time and frequency services • Radio astronomy • Aeronautical fixed and mobile Very High Frequency (VHF): 30 to 300 MHz The VHF band is characterized by reliable transmission over medium distances. At the higher portion of the VHF band, communication is limited by the horizon. Applications include: • FM radio broadcasting (88 to 108 MHz) • Low-band VHF-TV broadcasting (54 to 72 MHz and 76 to 88 MHz) • High-band VHF-TV broadcasting (174 to 216 MHz) • Commercial fixed and mobile radio • Aeronautical radionavigation • Space research • Fixed/maritime mobile • Amateur radio • Radiolocation Ultrahigh Frequency (UHF): 300 MHz to 3 GHz Transmissions in this band are typically line of sight. Short wavelengths at the upper end of the band permit the use of highly directional parabolic or multielement antennas. Applications include: • UHF terrestrial television (470 to 806 MHz) Frequency Bands, Propagation, and Modulation 1-3 • Fixed and mobile communications • Telemetry • Meteorological aids • Space operations • Radio astronomy • Radionavigation • Satellite communications • Point-to-point microwave relay Superhigh Frequency (SHF): 3 to 30 GHz Communication in this band is strictly line of sight. Very short wavelengths permit the use of parabolic transmit and receive antennas of exceptional gain. Applications include: • Satellite communications • Point-to-point wideband relay • Radar • Specialized wideband communications • Developmental research • Military support systems • Radiolocation • Radionavigation • Space research In This Section: Chapter 1.1: The Electromagnetic Spectrum 1-9 Introduction 1-9 Spectral Sub-Regions 1-10 Optical Spectrum 1-10 Visible Light Band 1-10 IR Band 1-11 UV Band 1-12 DC to Light 1-12 Microwave Band 1-12 Radio Frequency (RF) Band 1-13 Power Frequency (PF)/Telephone Band 1-13 Frequency Band Designations 1-13 Light to Gamma Rays 1-14 X Ray Band 1-15 Gamma Ray Band 1-17 1-4 Section One Bibliography 1-18 Chapter 1.2: Propagation 1-19 Introduction 1-19 Propagation in Free Space 1-19 Transmission Loss Between Antennas in Free Space 1-21 Propagation Over Plane Earth 1-23 Field Strengths Over Plane Earth 1-23 Transmission Loss Between Antennas Over Plane Earth 1-27 Propagation Over Smooth Spherical Earth 1-28 Propagation Beyond the Line of Sight 1-30 Effects of Hills, Buildings, Vegetation, and the Atmosphere 1-33 Effects of Hills 1-33 Effects of Buildings 1-37 Effects of Trees and Other Vegetation 1-39 Effects of the Lower Atmosphere (Troposphere) 1-39 Stratification and Ducts 1-40 Tropospheric Scatter 1-41 Atmospheric Fading 1-41 Effects of the Upper Atmosphere (Ionosphere) 1-41 References 1-42 Chapter 1.3: Frequency Sources and References 1-45 Introduction 1-45 Characteristics of Crystal Devices 1-45 Frequency Stabilization 1-46 Equivalent Circuit of a Quartz Resonator 1-47 Temperature Compensation 1-48 Stress Compensation 1-49 Aging Effects 1-50 Oscillators 1-50 Key Terms 1-51 Phase-Locked Loop Synthesizers 1-53 Practical PLL Circuits 1-54 Fractional-Division Synthesizers 1-56 Multiloop Synthesizers 1-59 Direct Digital Synthesis 1-61 References 1-64 Bibliography 1-65 Chapter 1.4: Modulation Systems and Characteristics 1-67 Introduction 1-67 Amplitude Modulation 1-68 Vestigial-Sideband Amplitude Modulation 1-71 Single-Sideband Amplitude Modulation 1-71 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) 1-74 Frequency Modulation 1-74 Frequency Bands, Propagation, and Modulation 1-5 Modulation Index 1-74 Phase Modulation 1-78 Modifying FM Waves 1-78 Preemphasis and Deemphasis 1-78 Pulse Modulation 1-79 Digital Modulation Systems 1-79 Pulse Amplitude Modulation 1-79 Pulse Time Modulation (PTM) 1-80 Pulse Code Modulation 1-80 Delta Modulation 1-82 Digital Coding Systems 1-84 Spread Spectrum Systems 1-86 References 1-86 Bibliography 1-87 Reference Documents for this Section Bean, B. R., and E. J. Dutton: “Radio Meteorology,” National Bureau of Standards Monograph 92, March 1, 1966. Benson, K. B., and Jerry. C. Whitaker: Television and Audio Handbook for Technicians and Engineers , McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 1989. Bullington, K.: “Radio Propagation at Frequencies above 30 Mc,” Proc. IRE , pg. 1122, October 1947. Bullington, K.: “Radio Propagation Variations at VHF and UHF,” Proc. IRE , pg. 27, January 1950. Burrows, C. R., and M. C. Gray: “The Effect of the Earth’s Curvature on Groundwave Propaga- tion,” Proc. IRE , pg. 16, January 1941. Collocott, T. C., A. B. Dobson, and W. R. Chambers (eds.): Dictionary of Science & Technology Crutchfield, E. B. (ed.): NAB Engineering Handbook , 8th ed., National Association of Broad- casters, Washington, D.C., 1991. de Lisle, E. W.: “Computations of VHF and UHF Propagation for Radio Relay Applications,” RCA, Report by International Division, New York, N.Y. Dickson, F. H., J. J. Egli, J. W. Herbstreit, and G. S. Wickizer: “Large Reductions of VHF Trans- mission Loss and Fading by the Presence of a Mountain Obstacle in Beyond-Line-of-Sight Paths,” Proc. IRE , vol. 41, no. 8, pg. 96, August 1953. “Documents of the XVth Plenary Assembly,” CCIR Report 238, vol. 5, Geneva, 1982. “Documents of the XVth Plenary Assembly,” CCIR Report 563, vol. 5, Geneva, 1982. “Documents of the XVth Plenary Assembly,” CCIR Report 881, vol. 5, Geneva, 1982. Dougherty, H. T., and E. J. Dutton: “The Role of Elevated Ducting for Radio Service and Inter- ference Fields,” NTIA Report 81–69, March 1981. Dye, D. W.: Proc. Phys. Soc. , Vol. 38, pp. 399–457, 1926. 1-6 Section One Eckersley, T. L.: “Ultra-Short-Wave Refraction and Diffraction,” J. Inst. Elec. Engrs ., pg. 286, March 1937. Epstein, J., and D. Peterson: “An Experimental Study of Wave Propagation at 850 Mc,” Proc. IRE , pg. 595, May 1953. Fink, D. G., (ed.): Television Engineering Handbook , McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., 1957. Fink, D., and D. 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Kubichek, Robert: “Amplitude Modulation,” in The Electronics Handbook , Jerry C. Whitaker (ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., pp. 1175–1187, 1996. Lapedes, D. N. (ed.): The McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology , 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y. Longley, A. G., and P. L. Rice: “Prediction of Tropospheric Radio Transmission over Irregular Terrain—A Computer Method,” ESSA (Environmental Science Services Administration), U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Report ERL (Environment Research Laboratories) 79-ITS 67, July 1968. McPetrie, J. S., and L. H. Ford: “An Experimental Investigation on the Propagation of Radio Waves over Bare Ridges in the Wavelength Range 10 cm to 10 m,” J . Inst. Elec. Engrs ., pt. 3, vol. 93, pg. 527, 1946. Megaw, E. C. S.: “Some Effects of Obstacles on the Propagation of Very Short Radio Waves,” J Inst. Elec. Engrs ., pt. 3, vol. 95, no. 34, pg. 97, March 1948. National Bureau of Standards Circular 462, “Ionospheric Radio Propagation,” June 1948. NIST: Manual of Regulations and Procedures for Federal Radio Frequency Management , Sep- tember 1995 edition, revisions for September 1996, January and May 1997, NTIA, Wash- ington, D.C., 1997. Norgard, John: “Electromagnetic Spectrum,” NAB Engineering Handbook , 9th ed., Jerry C. Whitaker (ed.), National Association of Broadcasters, Washington, D.C., 1999. Frequency Bands, Propagation, and Modulation 1-7 Norgard, John: “Electromagnetic Spectrum,” The Electronics Handbook , Jerry C. Whitaker (ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 1996. Norton, K. A.: “Ground Wave Intensity over a Finitely Conducting Spherical Earth,” Proc. IRE , pg. 622, December 1941. Norton, K. A.: “The Propagation of Radio Waves over a Finitely Conducting Spherical Earth,” Phil. Mag ., June 1938. “Radio Wave Propagation,” Summary Technical Report of the Committee on Propagation of the National Defense Research Committee, Academic Press, New York, N.Y., 1949. Riley, Thomas A. D.: “Frequency Synthesizers Having Dividing Ratio Controlled Sigma-Delta Modulator,” United States Patent, Patent No. 4,965,531, October 23, 1990. Rohde, Ulrich L.: Digital PLL Frequency Synthesizers , Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1983. Rohde, Ulrich L.: Microwave and Wireless Synthesizers: Theory and Design , John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., pg. 209, 1997. Selvidge, H.:“Diffraction Measurements at Ultra High Frequencies,” Proc. IRE , pg. 10, January 1941. Seymour, Ken: “Frequency Modulation,” in The Electronics Handbook , Jerry C. Whitaker (ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., pp. 1188–1200, 1996. Smith, E. E., and E. W. Davis: “Wind-induced Ions Thwart TV Reception,” IEEE Spectrum , pp. 52—55, February 1981. Stemson, A: Photometry and Radiometry for Engineers , John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y. Tate, Jeffrey P., and Patricia F. Mead: “Crystal Oscillators,” in The Electronics Handbook , Jerry C. Whitaker (ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., pp. 185–199, 1996. Terman, F. E.: Radio Engineering , 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y., pg. 468, 1947 The Cambridge Encyclopedia , Cambridge University Press, 1990. The Columbia Encyclopedia , Columbia University Press, 1993. “The Propagation of Radio Waves through the Standard Atmosphere,” Summary Technical Report of the Committee on Propagation , vol. 3, National Defense Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1946, published by Academic Press, New York, N.Y. van der Pol, Balth, and H. Bremmer: “The Diffraction of Electromagnetic Waves from an Electri- cal Point Source Round a Finitely Conducting Sphere, with Applications to Radiotelegra- phy and to Theory of the Rainbow,” pt. 1, Phil. Mag ., July, 1937; pt. 2, Phil. Mag ., November 1937. Webster’s New World Encyclopedia , Prentice Hall, 1992. Wells, John Norman: “Frequency Synthesizers,” European Patent, Patent No. 012579OB2, July 5, 1995. Whitaker, Jerry. C.: Radio Frequency Transmission Systems: Design and Operation , McGraw- Hill, New York, N.Y., 1991.