x Contents 8 The Socio-economic Dimensions of Offshore Aquaculture in a Multi-use Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Gesche Krause and Eirik Mikkelsen 9 Regulation and Permitting of Standalone and Co-located Open Ocean Aquaculture Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 John S. Corbin, John Holmyard and Scott Lindell Part III Aquaculture Economics 10 Economics of Multi-use and Co-location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Hauke L. Kite-Powell Part IV Case Studies 11 The German Case Study: Pioneer Projects of Aquaculture-Wind Farm Multi-Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Bela H. Buck, Gesche Krause, Bernadette Pogoda, Britta Grote, Lara Wever, Nils Goseberg, Maximilian F. Schupp, Arkadiusz Mochtak and Detlef Czybulka 12 The EU-Project “TROPOS” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Nikos Papandroulakis, Claudia Thomsen, Katja Mintenbeck, Pedro Mayorga and José Joaquín Hernández-Brito 13 Offshore Platforms and Mariculture in the US . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Jeffrey B. Kaiser and Michael D. Chambers Part V Conclusion and Outlook 14 Epilogue—Pathways Towards Sustainable Ocean Food Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Bela H. Buck and Richard Langan Editors and Contributors About the Editors Prof. Dr. Bela H. Buck studied neurophysiology and marine biology at the University of Bremen, at the Institute for Marine Research in Kiel and at the Leibniz Center for Tropical Marine Ecology (ZMT) in Bremen (all in Germany). In the years 1999/2000 he was involved in research projects concerning the aquaculture of giant clams at the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA), the James Cook University (JCU) and the Australian Institute for Marine Science (AIMS) in Townsville (all in Australia), in which he got is graduation as a marine biologist. Since 2001 he has been engaged in projects regarding off- shore aquaculture (especially as multifunctional use of offshore wind farms) at the Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI) in Bremerhaven/Germany. He conducted his Ph.D. in 2001–2004 in various aspects of offshore aquaculture related to technology, biology, legislation and ICZM issues within the German Bight (grade of excellent/highest distinction). From 2005 to 2007 Dr. Buck was postdoc at the AWI and is the head of the working group “Marine Aquaculture, Maritime Technologies and ICZM”. He was responsible to establish the Institute for Marine Resources (IMARE), in which he was the head of the section “Marine Aquaculture” as well as the Vice Director. In July 2007 he was given a professorship for “Applied Marine Biology” from the University of Applied Sciences in Bremerhaven including the right to award doctorates at the University of Bremen. From 2012 to 2015 he was the President of the German Aquaculture Association and is since then nom- inated as honorary president. Bela H. Buck is a member of the steering committee of the German Agricultural Research Alliance (DAFA). xi xii Editors and Contributors Today, Bela H. Buck is involved in various projects con- cerning the cultivation of marine plants/animals, the development of technological design and the realization of pilot projects to commercial enterprises. He is in cooperation with various national/international institutions. He is the founder for a new RAS plant (2.4 Mio €) for aquaculture research, which was inaugurated in March 2011. Bela H. Buck won three prices during his scientific career (e.g. The Price for interdisciplinary research from the Chamber of Commerce). Prof. Dr. Richard Langan is a Research Professor in the School of Marine Science and Ocean Engineering and the Director of Coastal and Ocean Technology Programs at the University of New Hampshire, USA. He received a Bachelors Degree in Biology from Lehigh University, and both Masters and Ph.D. from the University of New Hampshire. Dr. Langan’s Masters thesis topic was the ecology of anadromous fish in New England tidal rivers and his Ph. D. research focused on by-catch and discards in the commercial otter trawl fisheries in New England waters. Dr. Langan has been involved in fisheries and aquaculture research and development as both a scientific researcher and commercial entrepreneur for nearly four decades. He has more than fifty peer-reviewed publications and his work has received hundreds of citations. At the University of New Hampshire, Dr. Langan has held positions as a Research Scientist and Director of the Jackson Estuarine Laboratory; Director of the Cooperative Institute for Coastal and Estuarine Environmental Technology which focused on development and application of innovative technologies to address coastal water quality and habitat restoration; Director of the National Estuarine Research Reserve Science Collaborative, which supported collaborative environmental research at the 43 Research Reserve sites across the USA; and the Director of the Atlantic Marine Aquaculture Center, which conducted research, development, and demonstration on sus- tainable open ocean aquaculture of finfish and shellfish. Prior to his tenure at the University, Dr. Langan spent 5 years as first mate on the commercial fishing trawlers F/V Scotsman and F/V Captain Gould; 4 years as owner of a seafood retail, wholesale, and restaurant business; and 5 years as the owner and operator of a commercial oyster farm. In recent years, Dr. Langan has continued to work with the commercial fishing community and interested entrepreneurs to develop molluscan shellfish aquaculture businesses, focusing on oysters in estuarine waters and mussels and scallops in offshore waters. He has been successful in transferring technology developed the University to commercial practitioners. He is also working with the US government Protected Species Program to address the potential for entanglement of marine mammals and turtles in open ocean aquaculture gear. Editors and Contributors xiii Contributors Bela H. Buck Marine Aquaculture, Maritime Technologies and ICZM, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Bremerhaven, Germany; Applied Marine Biology, University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, Bremerhaven, Germany Michael D. Chambers School of Marine Science and Ocean Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA Thierry Chopin Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture Network, University of New Brunswick, Saint John, NB, Canada John S. Corbin Aquaculture Planning and Advocacy LLC, Kaneohe, HI, USA Detlef Czybulka University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany Arne Fredheim Department of Aquaculture Technology, SINTEF Fisheries and Aquaculture, Sluppen, Trondheim, Norway David Fredriksson Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, MD, USA K. Gee Helmholtz Zentrum Geesthacht, Geesthacht, Germany A. Gimpel Thünen-Institute of Sea Fisheries, Hamburg, Germany M. Gopnik Independent Consultant, Washington DC, USA Nils Goseberg Ludwig-Franzius-Institute for Hydraulic, Estuarine and Coastal Engineering, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany Britta Grote Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Marine Aquaculture, Maritime Technologies and ICZM, ZMFE Zentrum Für Maritime Forschung und Entwicklung, Bremerhaven, Germany Kevin Heasman Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand José Joaquín Hernández-Brito PLOCAN (Consorcio Para La Construcción, Equipamiento Y Explotación de La Plataforma Oceánica de Canarias), Telde, Spain Poul Holm School of Histories and Humanities, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland John Holmyard Offshore Shellfish Ltd., Brixham, Devon, UK Jeffrey B. Kaiser Marine Science Institute’s Fisheries and Mariculture Laboratory, The University of Texas at Austin, Port Aransas, TX, USA Hauke L. Kite-Powell Marine Policy Center, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, MS 41, Woods Hole, MA, USA Job Klijnstra Endures BV, Den Helder, The Netherlands xiv Editors and Contributors Gesche Krause Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Earth System Knowledge Platform (ESKP), Bremerhaven, Germany; SeaKult—Sustainable Futures in the Marine Realm, Bremerhaven, Germany Sander Lagerveld Wageningen University and Research—Wageningen Marine Research, Den Helder, The Netherlands Richard Langan School of Marine Science and Ocean Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA Scott Lindell Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, USA Pedro Mayorga EnerOcean S.L, Málaga, Spain Eirik Mikkelsen Departement of Social Science, Norut Northern Research Institute AS, Tromsø, Norway Katja Mintenbeck Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Integrative Ecophysiology/Marine Aquaculture, Bremerhaven, Germany Arkadiusz Mochtak University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany Nancy Nevejan Laboratory of Aquaculture & Artemia Reference Center, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Nikos Papandroulakis Hellenic Centre for Marine Research, Institute of Marine Biology Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Heraklion, Crete, Greece Bernadette Pogoda Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Marine Aquaculture, Maritime Technologies and ICZM, ZMFE Zentrum Für Maritime Forschung und Entwicklung, Bremerhaven, Germany; Faculty of Applied Marine Biology, University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, Bremerhaven, Germany Christine Röckmann Wageningen University and Research—Wageningen Marine Research, Den Helder, The Netherlands Torsten Schlurmann Ludwig-Franzius-Institute for Hydraulic, Estuarine and Coastal Engineering, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Hannover, Germany Maximilian F. Schupp Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Marine Aquaculture, Maritime Technologies and ICZM, ZMFE Zentrum Für Maritime Forschung und Entwicklung, Bremerhaven, Germany John Stavenuiter Asset Management Control Centre, Den Helder, The Netherlands Editors and Contributors xv Selina M. Stead School of Marine Science and Technology, Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK Vanessa Stelzenmüller Thünen-Institute of Sea Fisheries, Hamburg, Germany Claudia Thomsen Phytolutions GmbH, Bremen, Germany Sjoerd van der Putten TNO Structural Dynamics, Van Mourik Broekmanweg 6, Delft, The Netherlands Lara Wever Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Jülich, Germany Mathieu Wille Laboratory of Aquaculture & Artemia Reference Center, Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Xiaolong Zhang Endures BV, Den Helder, The Netherlands Abbreviations A Exposed surface area ABNJ Area Beyond National Jurisdiction ABRC Aquatic Biomass Research Center ACOE Armey Corps of Engineers ADV Acoustic Doppler Velocimetry AHP Analytical Hierarchy Process AMC Asset Management Control AOGHS American Oil and Gas Historical Society APA Aquaculture Planning and Advocacy AQU Aquamats® ARIES Artificial Intelligence for Ecosystem Services Art. Article ASAIM American Soybean Association International Marketing ASW Artificial Seaweed Collector AWI Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research ß Angle between cable and horizontal axis BAH Biologische Anstalt Helgoland (Biological Institute Helgoland) BFN Bundesamt für Naturschutz (Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN) BMP Best Management Practices BNatSchG Bundesnaturschutzgesetz (German Federal Nature Conservation Act) BRE Bronx River Estuary BSH Bundesamt für Seeschifffahrt und Hydrographie (Federal Maritime and Hydrographic Agency) BWB Bundesamt für Wehrtechnik und Beschaffung (Federal Office of Defence and Precurement) C Carbon CAPEX Capital expenditures CD Drag coefficient xvii xviii Abbreviations CEFAS Centre for Environment, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Science CI Condition index CIMTAN Canadian Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture Network CLME Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem CM Dynamic drag coefficient CO2 Carbon dioxide COC Coconut Rope d Day DA Department of the Army DHA Docosahexaenoic acid DIN Dissolved inorganic nitrogen DOWES Dutch Offshore Wind Energy Services DRG Drag DSP Diarrheic shellfish poisoning dw Dry weight EATiP European Aquaculture Technology and Innovation Platform EC European Commission EEZ Economic Exclusive Zone e.g. Exempli gratia (for example) EIA Environmental Impact Assessment ELG Effluent Limitation Guidelines EM Electron Microscope EPA Environmental Protection Agency, EicosaPentaenoic Acid EU European Union EuRG Ernte- und Reinigungsgerät (Harvest and cleaning device) F Force FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Fb Buoyancy forces FDA Food and Drug Administration FDRG Drag force FE Finite element FHI Fish Health Inspectorate FINO Forschungsplattformen in Nord- und Ostsee (Research Platforms in the North Sea and the Baltic Sea) Fm Mass forces FP7 7th Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development FPN Forschungsplattform Nordsee (Research Platform “North Sea”) Fs Force in the cable FSA Food Services Agency g Gravity GAO General Accounting Office GAR Galician Rope GCFMC Gulf Coast Fishery Management Council GG Grundgesetz (Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany) Abbreviations xix GIS Geographic Information System GIS-MCE GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation GPS Global Positioning System GRT Gross register tonnage GW Gigawatt GWEC Global Wind Energy Council HLS Harvard Law School Hmax Maximum wave height HOARP Hawaiian Offshore Aquaculture Research Project HSVA Hamburg Ship Model Basin HSWRI Hubbs Sea World Research Institute ICES International Commission for the Exploration of the Seas ICT Information and communications technology ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management i.e. Id est (that is to say, that is) ILVO Instituut voor Landbouw- en Visserijonderzoek (Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research) IMTA Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture InVEST Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs IQF Individually Quick Frozen IRR Internal rate of return IWGA Interagency Working Group on Aquaculture Km Kilometers kN Kilo Newton KW Kilowatt LAD Ladder Collector LCM Life Cycle Management LIS Long Island Sound LEC Looped Christmas Tree LL Longline LOC Leaded Christmas Tree M Material m Mass, meter ma Additional mass MAP Modified Atmosphere Packaging MaRS Marine Resource System MaxEnt Maximum Entropy modelling mc Collector mass MEAB Millennium ecosystem assessment MFA Marine Fisheries Agency MIC Microbial corrosion MIMES Multi-scale Integrated Models of Ecosystem Services ml Line mass MMC Multipurpose Marine Cadastre MMO Marine Management Organization xx Abbreviations MMS Minerals Management Service Mmt Millions of metric tons MPA Marine protected area, Magnuson-Stevens Act MSAC Marine Special Area of Conservation MSFD Marine Strategy Framework Directive MSP Marine Spatial Planning mt Metric tonnes MTBF Mean Time Between Failure MTTR Mean Time To Repair MUPs Multi-Use Platforms MW Megawatt MWh Megawatt hour MYM Multi-Year Maintenance N Nitrogen NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NE Natural England NFL Naue® Fleece NGO Non-governmental organisation NIMBY “Not In My Back Yard” nm Nautical miles NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service no. Number NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOC National Ocean Council NODV Northeast Ocean Data Viewer NPDES National Pollution Discharge Elimination System NPV Net present values NSGLC National Sea Grant Law Center NTC Nutrient trading credit O Origin OCS Outer Continental Shelf ODC Ocean Discharge Criteria ODAS Ocean Data Acquisition System OIE World Organization for Animal Health OFW Offshore wind farms O&M Operation & Maintenance OOA Open Ocean Aquaculture OPEX Operational expenditures OSPAR Oslo-Paris Commission OTEC Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion OWA Ordered Weighted Average approach OWEC Offshore wind energy converters OWF Offshore wind farm OWMF Offshore wind-mussel farm q Density of water Abbreviations xxi P Phosphors PAR Photosynthetically active radiation PE Polyethylene PEST Model-independent Parameter Estimation PIV Particle Image Velocimetry PL Phospholipids PLOCAN PLataforma Oceánica de las CANarias POM Particulate Organic Matter PP Polypropylene PSP Paralytic Shellfish Poison PRD Protected Resources Division PUFA PolyUnsaturated Fatty Acids PV PhotoVoltaic Q Displaced water volume RA Regional Administrator RAS Recirculating Aquaculture System RB Research Boat REF Reference Collector R&D Research & Development R,D&D Research, Development and Demonstration ROGF Regional Ocean Governance Framework ROI Return Of Investment RV Research Vessel S Size SAMS Scottish Association of Marine Science S&F “Set and Forget” SDVO Stichting voor Duurzame Visserijontwikkeling Visserijontwikkeling (Foundation for sustainable development of fisheries) SES Social-Ecological System, Seaweed Energy Solutions AS SeeAnlV Seeanlagenverordnung (Marine Facilities Ordinance) SFA State Fisheries Agency SGR Specific Growth Rate Sintef Stiftelsen for industriell og teknisk forskning (The Foundation for Scientific and Industrial Research) SL Service load SOSSEC Submersible Offshore Shellfish and Seaweed Cage SRB Sulfate reducing bacteria SSC Self-Sinking Collector SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats TAG Triacylglycerols TEAL Transport, Energy, Aquaculture, and Leisure TLP Tension-Leg Platform TNO Toegepast Natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek (Dutch Organization for Applied Scientific Research) UK United Kingdom xxii Abbreviations UKL United Kingdom Legislation UN United Nations UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea UNFAO United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization UNH University of New Hampshire USA United States of America USDA United States Department of Agriculture USDOC United States Department of Commerce UV Ultraviolet V Velocity, Volume VMS Vessel Monitoring System VOWTAP Wind Technology Advancement Project WAS World Aquaculture Society WQS Water Quality Standards WSA Water and Shipping Agency WTG Wind turbine generator ZAF Zentrum für Aquakulturforschung (Center for Aquaculture Research) Chapter 1 Introduction: New Approaches to Sustainable Offshore Food Production and the Development of Offshore Platforms Poul Holm, Bela H. Buck and Richard Langan Abstract As we exhaust traditional natural resources upon which we have relied for decades to support economic growth, alternatives that are compatible with a resource conservation ethic, are consistent with efforts to limit greenhouse emis- sions to combat global climate change, and that support principles of integrated coastal management must be identified. Examples of sectors that are prime can- didates for reinvention are electrical generation and seafood production. Once a major force in global economies and a symbol of its culture and character, the fishing industry has experienced major setbacks in the past half-decade. Once bountiful fisheries were decimated by overfishing and destructive fisheries practices that resulted in tremendous biomass of discarded by-catch. Severe restrictions on landings and effort that have been implemented to allow stocks to recover have had tremendous impact on the economy of coastal communities. During the period of decline and stagnation in capture fisheries, global production from aquaculture grew dramatically, and now accounts for 50% of the world’s edible seafood supply. With the convergence of environmental and aesthetic concerns, aquaculture, which was already competing for space with other more established and accepted uses, is having an increasingly difficult time expanding in nearshore waters. Given the P. Holm (&) School of Histories and Humanities, Trinity College Dublin, 2 College Green, Dublin 2, Ireland e-mail: holmp@tcd.ie B.H. Buck Marine Aquaculture, Maritime Technologies and ICZM, Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Bussestrasse 27, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany B.H. Buck Applied Marine Biology, University of Applied Sciences Bremerhaven, An der Karlstadt 8, 27568 Bremerhaven, Germany R. Langan School of Marine Science and Ocean Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03854, USA © The Author(s) 2017 1 B.H. Buck and R. Langan (eds.), Aquaculture Perspective of Multi-Use Sites in the Open Ocean, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-51159-7_1 2 P. Holm et al. constraints on expansion of current methods of production, it is clear that alternative approaches are needed in order for the marine aquaculture sector to make a meaningful contribution to global seafood supply. Farming in offshore marine waters has been identified as one potential option for increasing seafood production and has been a focus of international attention for more than a decade. Though there are technical challenges for farming in the frequently hostile open ocean environ- ment, there is sufficient rationale for pursuing the development of offshore farming. Favorable features of open ocean waters include ample space for expansion, tremendous carrying and assimilative capacity, reduced conflict with many user groups, lower exposure to human sources of pollution, the potential to reduce some of the negative environmental impacts of coastal fish farming (Ryan 2004; Buck 2004; Helsley and Kim 2005; Ward et al. 2006; Langan 2007), and optimal environmental conditions for a wide variety of marine species (Ostrowski and Helsley 2003; Ryan 2004; Howell et al. 2006; Benetti et al. 2006; Langan and Horton 2003). Those features, coupled with advances in farming technology (Fredheim and Langan 2009) would seem to present an excellent opportunity for growth, however, development in offshore waters has been measured. This has been due in large part to the spill over from the opposition to nearshore marine farming and the lack of a regulatory framework for permitting, siting and managing industry development. Without legal access to favorable sites and a “social license” to operate without undue regulatory hardship, it will be difficult for open ocean aquaculture to realize its true potential. Some parallels can be drawn between ocean aquaculture and electricity generation. Continued reliance on traditional methods of production, which for electricity means fossil fuels, is environmentally and eco- nomically unsustainable.