O R I E N TA L I A L OVA N I E N S I A A N A L E C TA P E E T ERS At the Heart of an Empire The Royal Household in the Neo-Assyrian Period by MELANIE M. GRO ß AT THE HEART OF AN EMPIRE: THE ROYAL HOUSEHOLD IN THE NEO-ASSYRIAN PERIOD ORIENTALIA LOVANIENSIA ANALECTA ————— 292 ————— PEETERS LEUVEN – PARIS – BRISTOL, CT 2020 AT THE HEART OF AN EMPIRE The Royal Household in the Neo-Assyrian Period by MELANIE M. GROß A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. © 2020, Peeters Publishers, Bondgenotenlaan 153, B-3000 Leuven/Louvain (Belgium) This is an open access version of the publication distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial reproduction and distribution of the work, in any medium, provided the original work is not altered or transformed in any way, and that the work is properly cited. ISBN 978-90-429-4073-4 eISBN 978-90-429-4074-1 D/2020/0602/100 For my parents TABLE OF CONTENTS L IST OF TABLES AND FIGURES XIX PREFACE XXI PART I: I NTRODUCTION 1 1 Objectives 1 2 Previous studies 2 3 Method and structure of the study . 3 4 Terminology . 7 5 Technical remarks . 8 6 Textual sources . 10 6.1 Text types 10 6.1.1 Legal texts . 11 6.1.2 Administrative texts . 13 6.1.3 Letters . 18 6.1.4 Royal inscriptions 22 6.1.5 Lexical lists of professions 25 6.2 Archives from the main centres 27 6.2.1 Archives from Assur (Qal‘at Šarqat) 28 6.2.2 Archives from Kalhu (Nimrud) 30 6.2.3 Archives from Dur-Šarrukin (Khorsabad) . 32 6.2.4 Archives from Nineveh (Kuyunjik and Nebi Yunus) 33 6.2.5 Concluding remarks . 34 6.3 Perishable materials and the Aramaic language 37 7 The Neo-Assyrian empire 38 7.1 Political history 39 7.1.1 First phase: from Aššūr-dān II (934–912) to Aššūr-nērāri V (754–745) 39 7.1.2 Second phase: from Tiglath-pileser III (744–727) to Sargon II (721–705) 40 7.1.3 Third phase: from Sennacherib (704–681) to the final fall (612/609) 41 7.2 Assyrian kingship 42 7.3 The king’s magnates 44 VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS P ART II: D ATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 47 1 Palace management 47 1.1 The rab ekalli (palace manager) 47 1.1.1 Family . 47 1.1.2 Appointment and career 48 1.1.3 Personal equipment 51 1.1.4 Property 52 1.1.5 Wine allocations 53 1.1.6 Gifts made by the rab ekalli 54 1.1.7 Legal transactions . 54 1.1.8 Functions . 55 1.1.8.1 Supervising palace access . 55 1.1.8.2 Writing boards . 56 1.1.8.3 Providing labour . 56 1.1.8.4 Releasing people . 58 1.1.8.5 Managing commodities. 60 1.1.8.5.1 Provision of commodities 60 1.1.8.5.2 Receipt of commodities 62 1.1.8.5.3 Miscellaneous 65 1.1.8.5.4 Summary . 66 1.1.8.6 Military activities 66 1.1.9 Subordinates . 67 1.1.10 Rank and jurisdiction . 69 1.1.11 Assignment to palaces . 70 1.1.12 Summary . 72 1.2 The ša-pān-ekalli (palace supervisor) 73 1.2.1 Family . 74 1.2.2 Appointment and career 74 1.2.3 Property 75 1.2.4 A storehouse of the ša-pān-ekalli 75 1.2.5 Allocations 76 1.2.5.1 Wine allocations . 76 1.2.5.2 Redistributed palace income . 77 1.2.6 Responsibility for sheep . 79 1.2.7 Legal transactions . 79 1.2.8 Functions . 80 1.2.8.1 Master-of-ceremonies 80 1.2.8.2 Supervising access to the king 81 1.2.8.3 Treaty ceremonies 82 1.2.8.4 Overseeing building materials 83 1.2.8.5 Covering a chariot with silver 83 TABLE OF CONTENTS IX 1.2.8.6 Dealing with deportees . 84 1.2.8.7 Activities in Babylonia . 85 1.2.8.8 A post-canonical eponym . 87 1.2.9 Subordinates . 87 1.2.9.1 Deputy . 88 1.2.9.2 Scribe 88 1.2.9.3 Messengers and an aide 89 1.2.9.4 Staff-bearers and watchmen 90 1.2.9.5 Military functionaries 90 1.2.9.6 Household staff 91 1.2.9.7 Miscellaneous. 91 1.2.10 Rank and jurisdiction . 91 1.2.11 Institutional affiliation . 94 1.2.12 Summary . 96 1.3 The rab ekalli versus the ša-pān-ekalli 96 1.4 The ṭupšar ekalli (palace scribe) 98 1.4.1 Equipment 99 1.4.2 Property 99 1.4.3 Allocations 100 1.4.4 Supplies 100 1.4.5 Legal transactions . 100 1.4.6 Functions . 101 1.4.7 Rank 104 1.4.8 Subordinates . 104 1.4.9 Institutional affiliation 105 1.5 The ṭupšar šarri (royal scribe) 106 2 Storage facilities 107 2.1 On the bēt qātē 107 2.2 The ša-pān-bēt-qātē 113 3 The inner quarters . 115 3.1 On the bētānu 115 3.2 The ša-muḫḫi-bētāni 118 3.2.1 Property 119 3.2.2 Allocations 119 3.2.3 Legal transactions . 120 3.2.4 Functions . 120 3.2.4.1 Involved in Babylonian affairs 120 3.2.4.2 A post-canonical eponym . 121 3.2.5 Rank and influence 121 3.2.6 Subordinates . 123 3.2.7 Summary . 125 3.3 Other personnel associated with the bētānu 125 X TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 The domestic sector 125 4.1 The bētu šaniu (“Second House”) 127 4.1.1 The ša-bēti-šanie 130 4.1.1.1 Allocations 131 4.1.1.2 Legal transactions 132 4.1.1.3 Functions . 132 4.1.1.3.1 Domestic tasks . 132 4.1.1.3.2 Transfer of goods . 133 4.1.1.4 Rank 134 4.1.2 Further personnel associated with the bētu šaniu 135 4.1.3 Summary . 135 4.2 The bēt nuḫatimmi (“House of the Cook”) 136 4.2.1 Cooks . 137 4.2.1.1 nuḫatimmu s of the temple . 137 4.2.1.2 nuḫatimmu s of the palace . 139 4.2.1.3 nuḫatimmu s of the royal family . 140 4.2.1.4 nuḫatimmu s of high-ranking officials 141 4.2.1.5 nuḫatimmu s in general . 141 4.2.1.5.1 Legal transactions and business involve- ments 141 4.2.1.5.2 Allocations 142 4.2.1.5.3 Taxes and obligations . 142 4.2.1.5.4 Function . 143 4.2.1.5.5 Rank 144 4.2.2 Butchers and cutters 144 4.2.2.1 The ṭābiḫu (butcher) 145 4.2.2.2 The nākisu (cutter) . 146 4.2.2.3 Summary 147 4.2.3 The ša-midlēšu (salt-meat man) . 147 4.2.4 The kāpir diqāri (dish-washer) . 148 4.2.5 Summary . 150 4.3 The bēt karkadinni (“House of the Confectioner”) 150 4.3.1 General remarks 153 4.3.2 karkadinnu s of the temple 153 4.3.3 karkadinnu s of the palace and the royal family . 154 4.3.4 karkadinnu s of high-ranking officials . 155 4.3.5 karkadinnu s in general 156 4.3.5.1 Legal transactions 156 4.3.5.2 Allocations 156 4.3.5.3 Taxes and obligations 157 4.3.5.4 Functions . 157 TABLE OF CONTENTS XI 4.3.6 Summary . 159 4.4 The bēt āpie (“House of the Baker”) 159 4.4.1 General remarks 159 4.4.2 Institutional affiliation . 161 4.4.3 āpiu s in general . 163 4.4.3.1 Legal transactions 163 4.4.3.2 Allocations 165 4.4.3.3 Functions . 166 4.4.3.4 Ethnic and geographical origin 168 4.4.3.5 Summary 168 4.5 The bēt šāqie (“House of the Cupbearer”) 169 4.5.1 The šāqiu (cupbearer) 170 4.5.1.1 Cupbearers of the temple . 171 4.5.1.2 Cupbearers of the royal family 171 4.5.1.3 Cupbearers of high-ranking officials 172 4.5.1.4 Cupbearers 172 4.5.1.4.1 Legal transactions . 172 4.5.1.4.2 Allocations 173 4.5.1.4.3 Functions . 174 4.5.1.4.4 Rank 175 4.5.2 The mār šāqie (son of the cupbearer) . 175 4.6 The bēt kāṣiri (“House of the Tailor”) 176 4.6.1 Tailors . 177 4.6.1.1 kāṣiru s of the temple 177 4.6.1.2 kāṣiru s of the palace and the royal family . 178 4.6.1.3 kāṣiru s of high-ranking officials . 179 4.6.1.4 kāṣiru s . 180 4.6.1.4.1 Legal transactions and business engage- ments 180 4.6.1.4.2 Allocations 180 4.6.1.4.3 Functions . 181 4.6.2 The ša-bēt-kāṣiri (“of the House of the Tailor”) 182 5 Security and guard 182 5.1 The rab atê (chief gatekeeper) 184 5.2 The atû (gatekeeper) 185 5.3 The ša-pān-nērebi (“entrance supervisor”) 190 5.4 The sukkallu ša nērebi (“vizier of the entrance”) 191 5.5 The rab sikkāti (“lock master”) 192 5.6 Functionaries concerned with gates ( bābu ) 193 5.7 The rab maṣṣiri (commander-of-the-guards) 194 5.8 The ša-maṣṣarti and maṣṣaru (“watchman” and “guard”) 195 XII TABLE OF CONTENTS 6 Military aspects of the royal household 198 6.1 Bodyguard 199 6.1.1 The ša-šēpē (“personal guard”) . 199 6.1.2 The ša-qurbūti (“agent”) . 201 6.1.3 Addendum: the kiṣir šarri 203 6.2 Military functionaries “of the palace” 204 6.3 Royal military functionaries 205 6.4 Satellite households 206 6.5 Military functionaries of palace officials 211 6.6 The bēl narkabti (“chariot owner”) 213 6.7 The rab kāṣiri (chief tailor) 215 6.7.1 Allocations and supplies . 216 6.7.2 Legal transactions . 217 6.7.3 Functions . 218 6.7.3.1 Involved in military affairs 218 6.7.3.2 Prominently active in Babylonia . 221 6.7.3.3 Custody of precious items . 223 6.7.3.4 Late-Assyrian eponym . 224 6.7.4 Subordinates . 224 6.7.5 Honorific title versus professional title 225 6.7.6 Summary . 225 7 Musicians 226 7.1 The rab zammāri (chief singer) and the zammāru (singer) 228 7.2 The rab nuāri (chief musician) and the nuāri šarri (royal musi- cian) 230 7.3 The nuāru (musician) 231 7.3.1 Legal transactions and properties 231 7.3.2 Wine rations and other allocations . 232 7.3.3 Ethnicity and origin 234 7.3.4 Skills and tasks . 235 7.3.5 Affiliation and social rank 237 7.4 The nargallu (chief musician) 238 8 Courtiers . 239 8.1 The ša-rēši 239 8.1.1 Status and functions 240 8.1.2 Ethnic origin and family connections . 244 8.1.3 Business activities and properties 245 8.1.4 Personal seals 248 8.1.5 Allocations 249 8.1.6 Attendance at court 250 8.1.7 Missions and fields of operation 251 8.1.8 Subordinates . 253 TABLE OF CONTENTS XIII 8.1.9 ša-rēši and other classes of courtiers 254 8.1.10 ša-rēši as a designation for eunuchs 255 8.1.11 Concluding remarks 257 8.2 The tīru 257 8.3 The urad ekalli 258 8.3.1 Legal transactions and properties 258 8.3.2 Allocations 259 8.3.3 Functions . 260 8.3.4 Recruitment 261 8.3.5 The urad ekalli and other classes 262 8.4 The zarriqu 262 8.5 The ša-ziqni 264 8.6 The mār ekalli 269 8.6.1 Origin 270 8.6.2 Connection to the palace 271 8.6.3 Witnesses to legal transactions 272 8.6.4 Economic activities 273 8.6.5 Subject matter in omens 275 8.6.6 Summary . 275 8.7 The mār-amat-ekalli 276 8.8 Other terms for palace personnel and other associates of the palace 279 8.8.1 The nišē ekalli 279 8.8.2 The nišē bēti 280 8.8.3 The muttabbil ekalli 281 8.8.4 The kalzi ekalli and the kalzāni ša šarri 281 8.8.5 The ērib ekalli 282 8.8.6 The libīt ekalli 283 8.8.7 The libīt šarri 283 8.8.8 The unzarḫu 284 8.8.9 Miscellaneous designations 285 9 Foreigners at court 285 10 The king’s scholars 299 11 The royal tombs 302 11.1 The bēt šarrāni 303 11.2 The bēt kimaḫḫi 304 11.3 Summary 306 12 The management of the food supply . 307 12.1 The rab nuḫatimmi (chief cook) 307 12.1.1 Appointment . 307 12.1.2 Personal equipment . 308 12.1.3 Property 308 XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS 12.1.4 Allocations 309 12.1.5 Temple supplies . 310 12.1.6 Legal transactions 310 12.1.7 Functions . 311 12.1.7.1 Acting as judge . 311 12.1.7.2 Domestic tasks 311 12.1.7.3 Dealing with livestock . 312 12.1.7.4 Active in Babylonia 315 12.1.7.5 A possible military connection . 315 12.1.7.6 A post-canonical eponym . 316 12.1.8 Subordinates . 316 12.1.9 Status 317 12.1.10 Institutional affiliation . 317 12.1.11 Summary . 318 12.2 The rab karkadinni (chief confectioner) 319 12.2.1 Allocations 319 12.2.2 Legal transactions 320 12.2.3 Functions . 320 12.2.4 Subordinates . 321 12.2.5 Institutional affiliation . 322 12.2.6 Summary 323 12.3 The rab āpie (chief baker) 323 12.3.1 Appointment . 323 12.3.2 Legal transactions 324 12.3.3 Functions . 326 12.3.4 Subordinates . 326 12.3.5 Institutional affiliation . 327 12.4 The rab qaqqulāti 327 12.5 The rab karāni (wine master) 329 12.5.1 Allocations 329 12.5.2 Supplies 330 12.5.3 Economic affairs . 331 12.5.4 Functions . 331 12.5.5 Subordinates . 332 12.5.6 Institutional affiliation . 333 12.6 The rab šamni (oil master) 333 12.7 The rab raqqūti (“spice master”) 334 12.8 The rab zamri (“fruit master”) 335 13 The management of grain 337 13.1 The rab karmāni (chief of granaries) and the rab karmi (granary master) 337 13.2 The rab ma’utti (“manager of the sustenance (fields)”) 340 TABLE OF CONTENTS XV 13.3 The rab danībāti (chief victualler) 342 13.4 The rab kissiti (fodder master) 347 14 The management of other goods . 348 14.1 The rab kutāte (vessel master) 349 14.2 The rab šaddāni (coffer master) 349 14.3 The rab kitê (linen master) 350 14.4 The rab maški (leather master) 350 14.5 The ša-muḫḫi-qanāti (“overseer of reeds”) 350 14.6 The rab batqi (“chief of repairs”) 351 14.7 The rab nikkassi (chief of accounts) 354 14.8 The masennu (treasurer) 357 14.8.1 Treasurers appointed to palaces . 357 14.8.2 Treasurers of members of the royal family 358 14.8.3 Treasurers appointed to the Aššur Temple 361 14.8.4 Treasurers appointed to cities. 365 14.8.5 Concluding remarks . 367 15 Food production 369 15.1 Oil-pressing 369 15.1.1 The rab ṣāḫiti (chief oil-presser) . 370 15.1.2 The ṣāḫitu (oil-presser). 371 15.2 Brewing 372 15.2.1 The rab sirāšê (chief brewer). 373 15.2.2 The sirāšû (brewer) . 374 15.2.3 The rab šimāni (chief maltster?) 377 15.2.4 The barrāqu (maltster?) 378 16 Personal care 379 16.1 The muraqqiu (perfume maker) 379 16.2 The gallābu (barber) 380 17 Textile production and processing 381 17.1 Weaving 383 17.1.1 The rab ušpāri (chief weaver) 384 17.1.2 The ušpāru (weaver) 386 17.1.2.1 Economic affairs . 386 17.1.2.2 Allocations 387 17.1.2.3 Institutional affiliation and dependencies . 388 17.1.2.4 Socialisation . 392 17.1.2.5 Professional skills and organisation . 393 17.1.3 Summary . 395 17.2 Fulling, bleaching and dyeing 395 17.2.1 The rab ašlāki (chief fuller) 397 17.2.2 The ašlāku (fuller) 400 17.2.3 The pūṣāiu (bleacher) 403 XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS 17.2.4 The muṣappiu and the ṣāpiu (dyer) . 403 18 Leather production and processing 404 18.1 The rab aškāpi and the aškāpu (chief tanner and tanner) 406 18.2 The ṣāripu and the ṣārip duḫšî (tanner and tanner of coloured leather) 408 18.3 The rab sēpie and the sēpiu (felt-worker) 410 19 Construction works 410 19.1 The rab etinni , the rab etinnāti and the etinnu (chief master builder and master builder) 410 19.2 The rab šelappāie and the šelappāiu (chief architect and architect) 414 19.3 The rab urāsi , the rab urāsāni and the urāsu (chief mason and mason) 418 20 Carpenters 421 21 Makers of bow and arrows . 426 22 Smiths 428 23 Processing of stone 440 23.1 The pallišu (stone-borer) 441 23.2 The parkullu (stone-carver) 442 23.3 The kapšarru (engraver) 443 24 Processing of clay and reed. 444 24.1 The paḫḫāru (potter) 444 24.2 The atkuppu (reed-worker) 446 25 Agriculture . 447 25.1 The rab ikkāri and ikkāru (chief farmer and farmer) 447 25.2 The rab ḫarbi (“chief of cultivation”) 453 25.3 The ša-epinni (ploughman) 454 25.4 The qatinnu (“farmhand”) 455 26 Gardening 457 26.1 The rab nukaribbi (chief gardener) and the rab kirie (garden manager) 460 26.2 The nukaribbu (gardener) 460 27 Animal husbandry . 464 27.1 Herders 464 27.1.1 The rab rā’î , the rā’iu rabiu and the rab kiṣri ša rā’î 467 27.1.2 Shepherds of the king, the palace and the satellite house- holds 468 27.1.3 Shepherds of different kinds . 469 27.1.3.1 Economic affairs and ownership of land 469 27.1.3.2 Allocations 470 27.1.3.3 Palace employees and government forces . 470 27.1.3.4 Animals in the shepherds’ care 471 TABLE OF CONTENTS XVII 27.1.3.5 Supervisors and superiors . 472 27.1.3.6 iškāru , ilku and taxation 473 27.1.3.7 Rank 475 27.1.3.8 Geographical distribution . 476 27.1.3.9 Concluding remarks. 476 27.2 The mušākilu (fatteners) 477 27.3 The ša-kalbāni (“keeper of dogs”) 481 28 Hunting and fishing 482 28.1 The sandû (fowler) 483 28.2 The rab ešerti ša bā’irī , the bā’iru and the bā’ir-nūni 486 P ART III: S YNTHESIS 487 1 The Neo-Assyrian palace 487 1.1 Types and locations 487 1.2 Functions 495 1.3 Composition and organisation 499 1.3.1 The itinerant king 501 1.3.2 The king’s servants . 502 1.3.3 Satellite households and associated departments . 505 1.3.3.1 The queen, the king’s mother and palace women 505 1.3.3.2 The crown prince 508 1.3.4 Overall administration . 509 1.3.5 Correspondence and documentation . 510 1.3.6 Guards and gateways 512 1.3.7 The supply of foodstuffs 512 1.3.7.1 Agriculture, gardening and animal husbandry 513 1.3.7.2 The management of foodstuffs 516 1.3.7.3 Preparation of foodstuffs 520 1.3.8 The supply of textiles and clothing . 523 1.3.8.1 Production, processing and cleaning of tex- tiles, leather and clothing . 523 1.3.8.2 Management of textiles and clothing 525 1.3.9 The supply of other goods. 526 1.4 The palace as an enterprise 531 1.5 The royal palace as seat of government 532 1.6 The palace in provincial capitals 532 2 Neo-Assyrian officialdom 533 2.1 Access to office and training 535 2.2 Process of appointment 540 2.3 Tenure and career steps 544 2.4 Remuneration 548 XVIII TABLE OF CONTENTS 2.5 The concept of service 555 2.6 Hierarchies and the exertion of influence 557 2.7 Delegation and authority 562 2.8 Rendering of titles 564 C ONCLUSIONS 569 P ROSOPOGRAPHY 577 B IBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS . 1047 O THER ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS . 1053 B IBLIOGRAPHY . 1055 I NDICES . 1085 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Table 1 Duration of office for palace managers . 51 Table 2 rab ekalli s associated with a particular palace 70 Table 3 Palace managers mentioned in tablets from the Review Palace at Kalhu 71 Table 4 Evidence for the bēt qātē 111–3 Table 5 Sequences of domestics . 126 Table 6 Neo-Assyrian evidence for the bētu šaniu 128 Table 7 References to the “House of the Cook” possibly associ- ated with the palace . 137 Table 8 References to the “House of the Confectioner” . 152 Table 9 References to the “House of the Cupbearer” . 170 Table 10 References to the “House of the Tailor” 177 Table 11 Individuals designated “(of the) royal corps” . 204 Table 12 Military functionaries of the king 206 Table 13 Military functionaries in the service of the queen, the king’s mother and the crown prince . 209–11 Table 14 Military functionaries in the service of palace officials 212 Table 15 Palace personnel attached to specific palaces . 494–5 Figure 1 The structure of the Neo-Assyrian royal household . 530