From the forefathers of Arab Modernity in the late 19th century through to their successors, this movement serves as a principle tenet to the history of art from the region. Myrna Ayad and Saleh Barakat survey this period in the Arab world, which saw rapid political, social and economic change that was similarly reflected through the works of these Modern Masters. A rab Modernity in its artistic sense is a school of thought, of change and of expression. Its two central characteristics are wholly reflective of the time – that particular period of Arab history from the 1870s until, more specifically, its peak in the early part of the 20th century – and the people, the region’s key cultural protagonists, who fundamentally desired a solid iden- tity and sought advancement through education in the West. The political events of this era were absolutely key to the de- velopment of Arab modernity: this was an Arab world working to shed centuries of foreign occupation, with Ottoman control and the colonial authority of the European powers challenged and eventually overthrown. Arab countries were able to estab- lish their independence, with monarchies replaced by repub- lics in another symbolic change. Yet peace was elusive, as the Arab states went to war against Israel, firstly with the country’s occupation of Palestine in 1948 and lastly with the 1973 Yom Kippur War. The forefathers of Arab Modernity were the founding fig- ures who, against significant social, political and economic odds, laid the groundwork for art as a serious profession. Theirs was no mean feat – rural communities across the Middle East were governed largely by feudal systems under which peasant populations did not understand or approve of art as an occu- pation. For an individual in such a context to become an artist was an enormous challenge, and one that was neither ‘normal’ nor welcome, except in the most enlightened of families. The first generation of Arab artists was, unsurprisingly, often mar- ginalised. The few who broke new ground did so with expo- sure to the West by studying overseas, an opportunity usually granted through the auspices of the Western colonial powers, who often appreciated these aspiring artists more so than their own communities did. PAVING THE WAY One of the earliest figures of Modern Arab art is Lebanese- born Daoud Corm (1852–1930), who was sent to Rome to study at the Accademia di Belle Arti in 1870. Initially, Lebanon’s 158 158 Facing page: Jewad Selim.(Detail) Portrait of a Girl. Circa 1950. Oil on canvas. 69.2 x 50 cm. Image courtesy Sotheby’s. This page, from top: Moustafa Farroukh. (Detail) Untitled. 1947. Oil on canvas. 42 x 61 cm; Omar Onsi. Fountain. 1936. Oil on wood. 38 x 46 cm; Omar Onsi. Untitled. Circa 1935. Watercolour on paper. 40 x 60 cm. The first generation of Arab artists was, unsurprisingly, often marginalised. Christian sects had brought in artists from Italy and Greece to paint their churches, but they later began sending their own painters to Paris and Rome to study religious iconog- raphy. Corm was among this group and, following his ap- pointment as official artist to Belgium’s royal family, he be- gan painting portraits of governors and other eminent fig- ures in addition to working on several churches across the Middle East. When he returned to Lebanon in the early part of the 20th century, he founded Liban Papeterie aux Cèdres, a library through which he sold art equipment. Through his atelier, Corm attracted many who came to be known as Lebanon’s pioneering artists, among them the ‘founder of Modern Lebanese art’, Khalil Saleeby (1870–1928), Habib Srour (1860–1938) and the celebrated artist, poet and writer Kahlil Gibran (1883–1931). Both Saleeby and Srour went on to establish their own ateliers through which they taught the next generation of Lebanese artists. A wealthy man, Saleeby is considered the ‘father’ of Mod- ern art in Lebanon. As a member of the country’s bourgeois elite, he was financially able and passionately committed to the study of art, but unlike his predecessors who went to Paris and Rome, he travelled to Edinburgh for his artistic training. There, he met American portrait artist John Singer Sargent (1856–1925), who was to have a profound impact on his work. The pair subsequently trained in Paris and worked with the Impressionists, including Auguste Renoir. Sargent then encouraged Saleeby to study in Philadelphia, where he met his wife and muse, the French-born Carrie Aude. When he returned to Lebanon, Saleeby set up an atelier and became known predominantly as a portrait artist. Significantly, Saleeby pushed the confines of conservative artistic practice, painting nudes, with his wife as the principal subject. Tragically, both were murdered in 1928 following a dispute over water rights 159 159 160 Moustafa Farroukh. (Detail) Untitled. 1947. Oil on canvas. 42 x 61 cm. 161 THE ART OF REDUCTION Saliba Douaihy’s church commission in Di- man, North Lebanon (Figure 1) reveals the artist’s early tendency to a bolder use of colour in this fresco. Figures 2-4 reflect his palette’s transformation but are also clear examples of how the artist sought to sim- plify his beloved landscape into geomet- ric forms. Douaihy’s desire for a minimalist composition was initiated in the USA in the 1950s at the height of the Post War Abstract 1 Expressionist movement. in the village of Btalloun – an indication of the clannish attitudes which still domi- nated the country at that time. Among Saleeby’s students were Omar Onsi (1901–69) and César Gemayel (1898–1958). Both were typical Impressionist artists who studied in Paris; Gemayel, like his teacher, came from an affluent family and also painted nudes, while Onsi was among the first Lebanese Muslims to venture into art. Both, along with Mousta- fa Farroukh (1901–57), painted landscapes, portraits and still-lifes and sold their work within their local communities. However, their main patrons were Westerners. Even so, these early artists were rarely adequately funded; indeed, Farroukh, celebrated for his paintings of Lebanon and its people, died penniless even though he had studied in Europe and become a professor at the American University of Beirut. Nonetheless, the push to create a concrete art structure in Lebanon stemmed from some of these artists’ ateliers, and the fruits of their labour helped bring about the establishment in 1937 of L’Académie Libanaise des Beaux Arts (now a faculty of ALBA: University of Balamand). The academy, like others across the region, was actually founded by a collective of artists, in this case with Gemayel as a co-founder. Egyptian Renaissance Elsewhere in the Middle East, Egypt’s Mahmoud Mokhtar (1891–1934) was mak- ing waves with the sculptural compositions for which he was to become cele- brated, both within the region and beyond. Dubbed ‘the father of Modern Egyp- tian sculpture’, he pursued studies at L’École des Beaux Arts in Paris thanks to a grant from the Egyptian Prince Youssef Kamal, who founded the Cairo School of Fine Arts (now part of Helwan University) in 1908 and from which Mokhtar graduated. A patron of education and the arts, Prince Youssef donated the land on which the School and other institutions were built, in the hope of support- ing the art scene in Egypt. A nationalist hero, Mokhtar is renowned especially for his two monumental sculptures (in Alexandria and Left: Khalil Saleeby. Eva Tabet. 1912. Oil on Cairo, respectively) of Egyptian Prime Minister and revolution- canvas. 200 x 100 cm. ary Saad Zaghloul, and the public commission, Egypt’s Awaken- Facing page: César ing, completed in 1928. Mokhtar’s contemporary take – inspired Gemayel. (Detail) Untitled. 1950. Oil on by European techniques – on pharaonic elements, infused with board. 25 x 35 cm. 162 162 Strip, left to right: All by Saliba Douaihy. A view of the Maronite church ceiling of Diman in Northern Lebanon painted during the 1940s. Photography by Saleh Barakat; Untitled. 1973. Oil on canvas. 62 x 52 cm; (Detail) Untitled. 1971. Acrylic on panel. 171 x 80.5 cm; (Detail) Untitled. Circa 1978. Acrylic on canvas. 80 x 152 cm. 2 3 4 As the countries gained independence, so too did their artists begin to stand on solid ground. a strong nationalistic identity, saw him becoming iden- tified in the popular imagination as ‘Egypt’s first sculptor in 1700 years’. These were exciting times in Egypt. A people’s na- tionalist movement led by Zaghloul was demanding an independent Egypt, which was formally declared in 1922, the same year that Howard Carter discovered Tutankha- mun’s tomb. The increased sense of nationalism among Egyptians was also evident in the work of Ragheb Ayad (1892–1982), who joined the Cairo School of Fine Arts the same year as Mokhtar. Ayad, who also studied in Rome, painted popular Egyptian life in an expressionistic man- ner, bringing an artistic focus on the country’s villagers, were buying Said’s work. After the 1952 Egyptian Revolution farms, camels and market scenes. and the departure of most expatriates from Egypt, his work A number of leading Modern Arab artists hailed from the stopped selling and it is only in recent years that that has land of the Pharaohs, among them the aristocrat Mahmoud changed – and rather dramatically. Said (1897–1964). The son of a Pasha, he first pursued a degree European influences are present in the art produced in law to appease his father, and then took another in fine art during this time across the Arab world. Abdul Qadir Al- in Paris. Upon his return from the French capital, his family Rassam (1882–1952), known as the father of realist painting dismissed a vocation in art altogether and Said embarked on in Iraq, and Mohammed Saleh Zaki (1888–1974) painted a judicial career. However, he continued to paint throughout landscapes in a realistic method which was influenced by and at the age of 50 decided to dedicate himself completely the Ottoman style of topographical art. With the dissolution to art. Like Mokhtar, Said was sensitive to the changing times of Ottoman control over Arab lands and the establishment in his native Alexandria, and this nationalistic sentiment was of a monarchy in Iraq, these founding fathers paved the way ever-present in his oeuvre through his painting of Egyptian for the next generation of Modern artists. The region thus subjects and landscapes, blended with European influences. entered a new chapter in its tumultuous political, social and As with Saleeby, Said’s elite background meant that he was economic history. As the countries gained independence, so able to deflect any comments on his paintings of nudes – too did their artists begin to stand on solid ground, produc- he was the cousin of Egyptian Queen Farida, after all. And, ing works which fall into three main tenets of Arab Modern as with his fellow artists in Lebanon, it was Westerners who art: Abstraction, Social Realism and Calligraphy and Signs. 163 163 164 César Gemayel. (Detail) Untitled. 1950. Oil on board. 25165 x 35 cm. I. ABSTRACTION The control exerted over Arab countries by the colonial powers was matched by a growing desire among local artists to search for a new vernacular. Within the domain of Abstraction, two main groups emerged: first, those artists who sought to expand the process itself – abstraction for abstraction’s sake; and second, those whose practice of the style stemmed from an identity-driven and spiritual search. INTENDED ABSTRACTION A pure investigation of abstraction and a perpetual fascination with visual form charac- terised the first group of Modern Arab artists, who sought to delve into the style solely for the sake of exploration. Their impetus was not one that involved a search for identity tied to Arab nationality; on the contrary, these artists sought abstraction as a phenom- enon. The world was changing – Freud’s theories and the study of psychoanalysis had come to the fore, the Second World War had ended, Post War artistic movements such as Abstract Expressionism revolutionised classic art practices, Arab states established their independence, man went to the moon, and scientific technology advanced. The possibilities were limitless. One artist who is credited with co-founding the Modern art movement in Morocco is Mohamed Melehi (1936–), whose body of work is reflective of his experimentations with science and nature. One key characteristic of his oeuvre is the wave, symbolising rhythm, eternity and the woman, and which is intrinsically tied to his birthplace and cur- rent residence, the colourful coastal town of Asilah. After pursuing his artistic training in several European capitals, Melehi went to the USA in 1962 and it was there that he came into contact with American Hard Edge and Colour Field painter and printmaker Ellsworth Kelly (1923–). The geometric abstraction of Hard Edge, in addition to the solid palette of Colour Field painting, inspired Melehi. However, Morocco was never far from 166 166 his mind – he was infatuated with its ceramics, with the sea, scape through a dextrous use of light and colour. He was the the moon and the mashrabiyyahs – and in the process of re- subject of a major retrospective earlier this year at the Beirut ducing the world around him into minimal lines and forms, Exhibition Centre, which showcased his early figurative works his use of colour became more energetic and vibrant. His fel- and their gradual transformation into blocks of colour. In low Moroccan Jilali Gharbaoui (1930–71) was also seminal Paris, he had attended classes by Léger and André in the foundation of the Modern art movement in Morocco. Lhote (1885–1962) and held the work of Roger Bissière Using Impressionist art as a platform, Gharbaoui’s path to (1886–1964) and Nicolas de Staël (1914–55) in high esteem. abstraction was led by his fascination with light and colour, With the stories told to him by his grandmother, and the following studies in Paris and Rome. The notion of light and memory of the lush Lebanese landscape and Byzantine dark reflects his tortured psyche – he had attempted suicide, churches in his mind, Abboud produced a body of work suffered depression, and eventually died of substance abuse which saw him experiment in canvas, ceramics, tapestries (in 1971). His was a difficult childhood – orphaned young, he and lithographs. was raised in a monastery in the northern part of Morocco, Such multimedia practice is also echoed in the works of where there were lots of crows. There is something funda- Egypt’s Mounir Canaan (1919–99). While greatly influenced mentally intrinsic about crows in Gharbaoui’s limited body by the American Abstract Expressionists, Canaan manoeu- of work through his erratic brushstrokes and somewhat un- vred his way through various materials, seeking changes defined compositions. in texture, and via differing perspectives for the sake of In the Levant, Shafic Abboud (1926–2004) left Lebanon abstraction, and finally arrived at collage in his later years. for Paris in 1947 and remained there for the rest of his life. His success with cutting, pasting and gluing to create col- Like Melehi, whose Moroccan heritage remained etched in lages and assemblages stemmed from his work as a maga- his mind, Abboud’s paintings celebrate his homeland’s land- zine illustrator in Cairo in the 1940s. Yet, over the next two The world was changing . . . Facing page, left to right: Mounir Canaan. Whirlpool. The possibilities were limitless. 1979. Collage and oil paint on cardboard. 55 x 60 cm. Image courtesy Al-Masar Gallery, Cairo; Mohamed Melehi. Pink Flame. 1972. Cellulosic paint on panel. 110 x 95 cm. Image courtesy Meem Gallery, Dubai. Below, left to right: Jilali Gharbaoui. Untitled 1960. Oil on canvas. 65 x 92 cm. Image courtesy Meem Gallery, Dubai; Shafic Abboud. Untitled. 1967–70. Oil on canvas. 145.6 x 145.2 cm. Image courtesy Sotheby’s. 167 167 Jilali Gharbaoui. (Detail) Untitled. 1960. Oil on canvas. 65 x 92 cm. Image courtesy Meem 168Gallery, Dubai 169 Facing page: Saloua Raouda Choucair. Poem. 1963–5. Wood. 39 x 19 x 7.5 cm. This page: Above: Aref El-Rayess. Untitled. 1961. Oil on hardboard. 63 x 51.5 cm. Image courtesy Sotheby’s. Below: Saliba Douaihy. Untitled. 1974. Acrylic on canvas. Diptych. 60 x 92 cm each. decades he sank into financial despair, his works failing to appeal to local audiences at a time when art was defined by contemporary culture. Nevertheless, Canaan was a major catalyst in the modernisation of a traditional-driven Egyptian art scene. INTERNAL JOURNEYS Within the first group were Lebanon’s Saliba Douaihy (1915–94), Saloua Raouda Choucair (1916–) and Aref El- Rayess (1928–2005), as well as Iraq’s Shakir Hassan Al-Said (1925–2004). Generally speaking, this cadre pursued their search for abstraction through elements which were cul- turally and/or spiritually relevant to their surroundings and psyches. Douaihy, who was sent to Paris’s École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts in 1932, began painting typi- cal landscapes in an Impressionist manner. He also paint- ed churches, including the commission for the Maronite church in Diman in North Lebanon. Many of the ‘Douaihy churches’ still stand today in the mountains of Lebanon. Both they and his later landscape paintings vividly reveal his move from a light, subdued palette to a more bold, ex- pressive and energetic one. One of the interesting aspects 170 Choucair looked for the unapparent within the apparent, for the invisible within the visible. in Douaihy’s work is the infusion of geometric forms he employed as part of a growing minimalist tendency in his oeuvre, all the while adhering to a spiritual pursuit: for him, the Lebanese landscape was divine. In 1950 Douaihy moved to New York, where he came into contact with artists of the Abstract Expressionist movement. He subsequently embarked on an intellectual pursuit of simplifying forms and flattening landscapes, which he continued for the last two decades of his life. Choucair, who is the subject of a major exhibition at the Tate next April, was an apprentice of Farroukh and Onsi and also a student of the famed French artist Fernand Léger (1881–1955). Though she was introduced to the non-figurative movement in Paris, her return to Lebanon saw her develop an abstraction in- spired by Sufism, Islam and Arabic poetry. It was during her studies in philosophy at the American University in Beirut that Choucair’s fascination with Islamic art as an abstract notion was triggered, when a professor had announced that the genre was pure ornamentation. Choucair disagreed and began her lifelong work, interlocking the curve and the line from Islamic design in abstract forms and in various materials and sizes. She faced obstacles for her non-representational work when audiences in the 1950s sought a more defining narrative; this audi- ence was also somewhat discriminative of gender, faith and personal philosophy. Fundamentally, Choucair looked for the unapparent within the apparent, for the invisible within the visible. This divine pursuit is also exemplified in the works of El-Rayess. Largely self- taught, he pursued his artistic training in Paris and Rome rather late in life and taught at several universities in Lebanon. With the onset of the Lebanese Civil War, El-Rayess relocated to Jeddah in Saudi Arabia, where he was commissioned to create a public sculpture, which celebrated light and divinity through its soaring steel structures, and still stands there today. El-Rayess was primarily concerned with how art could lead to liberty and a spiritual quest in its visual embodiment of beauty and nature. Al-Said’s practice, on the other hand, was intrinsically tied to Islam; essentially, he looked for God through art and for him, painting as an art form was an ephemeral divine journey – simply a means to get closer to God. A graduate of the École Nationale Supérieure des Beaux-Arts, Al-Said returned to Iraq and, along with the revered Jewad Selim (1921–61), founded the Baghdad Modern Art Group in 1951. The group’s fundamental premise was the meshing of traditional and national elements in a modern manner. Al-Said abandoned his ini- tial figurative work and embarked on a search for transcendence, which entailed negotiating notions of time and space. 171 Shakir Hassan Al-Said. Untitled 1983. Mixed media on panel. 172 122 x 91 cm. [For Shakir Hassan Al-Said], painting as an art form was an ephemeral divine journey – simply a means to get closer to God. 173 174 Aref El-Rayess. (Detail) Untitled. 1961. Oil on hardboard. 63 x 51.5 175 cm. Image courtesy Sotheby’s. II. SOCIAL REALISM The advances made by Arab independence movements were mirrored by a desire on the part of the region’s artists to move away from the vernacular towards the creation of works with a broader dimension and more contemporary relevence. As their societies were modernising, so these artists felt the need to carve a cultural identity that reflected the groundbreaking social and political changes that were taking place. Despite living in what were traditionally rather closed societies, some Arab artists had always transgressed the recognised norms, and in the post-colonial era, many decided to use modernity as a vehicle through which they could both ‘sur- pass and succeed’. Whereas many of today’s Contemporary artists are preoccupied with their own personal inspirations, their Modern predecessors were more con- cerned with the wider issues of Arab identity and nationalism. The context in which they were working was both complex and fast-changing, with the Arab states find- ing themselves caught between East and West across a wide spectrum of different policies and concerns, which their newly created governments sought to address. Despite the success of the quest for independence, internal and regional conflicts continued to plague the new administrations: for example, from the mid-1940s on- wards, Syria experienced several coup d’états, entered a pact with the Soviet Union in 1956, was embroiled in the 1967 Arab-Israeli war and saw power eventually seized by the Baathist Party. The Baathists also took control in Iraq, where the Hashemite monarchy had been overthrown in 1958, and closer ties forged with the Soviet Un- ion. Then, in 1979, came the instalment of Saddam Hussein. Arab nationalism was epitomised in the Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser, whose pan-Arab ideology of Nasserism swept the region. Although revered and admired by many, Abdel Nasser presided over an Egypt undergoing profound social, political and economic change: the Arab war against Israel, the 1956 Suez Crisis following Abdel Nasser’s nationalisa- tion of the canal, his death in 1970, the 1973 Yom Kippur War and the installation of Anwar Sadat as president in 1970, all made for a time of great upheaval. TRIALS AND TRIBULATIONS The impact of these conflicts was reflected in the works of a group of Modern Arab artists who were primarily concerned with the human condition, class sys- tems and the strife taking place within society. In addition to a desire to express the new nationalism and identity was an appeal to consider the people and their suffering. This sensitivity to the plight of others embodies the oeuvre of Syrian- born Louay Kayyali (1934–78), who essentially codified sensuality within a society that repressed it. A delicate sense of sadness is prevalent in Kayyali’s works. Though many of his subjects came from poor backgrounds – fishermen, flute players and other members of the working class – they are not rendered as impoverished. Rather, they embody an appeal, an expression of welcoming and serenity, but with a message nonetheless of inner conflict. In subtle gestures, Kayyali’s subjects pronounce their misery in a manner reflective of the depression from which the artist suffered. Lebanon’s Paul Guiragossian (1926–2003) also chose subjects from 176 176 Facing page: Tahia Halim. Girls on a Felucca. Circa early 1960s. Oil on canvas. 130 x 70 cm. Image courtesy Christie’s. Clockwise:Gazbia Sirry. The Kite. 1960. Oil on canvas. 95 x 51 cm. Image courtesy Zamalek modest backgrounds at the beginning of his career, with the ‘father of Modern Iraqi art’, Selim pursued his ar- Art Gallery, Cairo; Gazbia Sirry. (Detail) concept of the family, in addition to the role of the mother, tistic training in Paris and Rome, and at London’s Houses. 1968. Oil on canvas. 70 x 100 cm. central to his practice. One of the country’s most renowned Slade School of Art in the late 1940s. His travels, Image courtesy Zamalek Art Gallery, Cairo; Louay artists, Guiragossian transformed humans in his work into his co-founding of the 1951 Baghdad Modern Kayali. Untitled. 1974. Oil on panel. 95 x 75 cm. faceless, elongated figures painted in a thick forceful im- Art Group, in addition to the influence of Pablo pasto and transmitting a tangible sense of melancholia. Picasso (1881–1973), in terms of reinterpreting A similar mood can be found in the works of Fateh Mou- paintings, left an indelible imprint on future generations of Ira- darres (1922–99) who, like Kayyali, studied at the Accademia qi artists, including Dia Al-Azzawi (1939–). Selim painted work- di Belle Arte in Rome and was to fuse surrealist and realist ers, villages, horses, weeping women, martyrs, the jailed intel- techniques in his oeuvre. As tensions grew in Syria in the late lectual, mother and child and everyone and everything else 1960s, Moudarres began to address the political and social which constituted Iraq’s social structure. Among his famous strife in what can be described as melancholic compositions, works is the epic Monument for Freedom sculpture in Bagh- featuring Syrian myths, symbolism and folkloric emblems. dad, which was the artist’s response to issues of identity at By highlighting his country’s rich cultural heritage – through that time. Selim’s student, Ismail Fattah (1934–2004) who also the square-headed subjects recalling the Assyrian era, for ex- studied in Rome, was concerned too with the human condi- ample – and the plight of his countrymen, Moudarres was tion, but in an abstract and sculptural sense. There is a feeling effectively calling for social justice. of seclusion in his works, in addition to heightened attention This aspiration was also central to the work of Iraqi Jewad to the human body in relation to its spatial surroundings. Fat- Selim (1921–61), who painted all classes of his native society in tah was fascinated by masks, and while faces are obscured in what comprised his socialist view of a new Iraq. Known as the his works, the figures convey a clear aura of resilience. In addition to a desire to express the new nationalism and identity was an appeal to consider the people and their suffering. 177 177 178 Gazbia Sirry. (Detail) Houses. 1968. Oil on canvas. 70 x 100 cm. Image courtesy Zamalek179Art Gallery, Cairo. EARLY EXPERIMENTS There exist two known sketches of whirling der- vishes by Mahmoud Said – one is owned by fea- tured Art Patron Dr Hussam Rashwan and the oth- er by Egyptian businessman Mustafa Sabri, who acquired it from the artist’s family. Said’s oil on can- vas work, formerly in the collection of ex-Jeddah Mayor Dr Mohammed Said Farsi, sold at a Dubai Christie’s auction for over $2 million. The dervishes are among themes which dominated popular cul- ture in Egypt at that time – a practice which was imported from Konya in Turkey and which Said was familiar with, having grown up nearby El-Mur- si Abul Abbas Mosque in Alexandria. 1 2 Strip, above and below: Mahmoud Said. Preparatory Sketch for the Whirling Dervishes. 1929. Watercolour, pen and ink on paper. 17 x 10 cm. From the collection of Dr Hussam Rashwan, Alexandria. Photography by Hisham Hussein; The Whirling Dervishes. 1929. Oil on panel 97.5 x 69.8 cm. Image courtesy Christie’s. 180 180 By highlighting his country’s rich cultural heritage and the plight of his countrymen, [Fateh] Moudarres was effectively calling for social justice. Facing page, above and below: Abdul Hadi El-Gazzar. Fishing. 1957. Oil on board. 85 x 70 cm. Image courtesy Christie’s; Hamed Owais. A Country Girl. 1963. Oil on canvas. 97 x 134 cm. Image courtesy Zamalek Art Gallery, Cairo. This page, left and right: Paul Guiragossian. Untitled. 1972. Oil on canvas. 100 x 72 cm; Fateh Moudarres. Beirut. 1976. Oil on canvas. 75 x 55 cm. THE FERTILE NILE ais (1919–2011). He felt strongly about artwork mirroring the Following the 1952 Egyptian Revolution and the abolition of times, and his native Alexandria, its surrounding rural scenery the monarchy, the Egyptian public largely showed solidarity and people feature prominently in his oeuvre. Against a back- with the new regime. During this period, the role of women drop of the challenging issues that dominated social life, Ow- became a subject of great debate with them featuring pre- ais continued to render his quintessentially Egyptian subjects dominantly, in the works of Gazbia Sirry (1925–), for example. with dignity and esteem, using bright colours and defined This was largely due to her belief in both women’s collective lines. His women, for example, are often seen as confident, and individual power, but her later work reveals an increased and his workers are empowered with strong physiques. sense of urbanism. In a greater expressionistic manner, Sirry Abdel Hadi El-Gazzar (1925-66) also focused on the Egyp- was critical of social and political conditions. Women were tian people, but he concentrated on society’s more esoteric also the focus of Tahia Halim’s (1919–2003) work. Her passion dimensions, featuring medieval traditions, circus acrobats, for the Nubian people in particular was inspired by her visits prostitutes and later, science fiction. He was familiar with such to Aswan in the early 1960s, as the construction of the fa- subjects from his time growing up in one of the poorer parts mous dam meant a relocation of the people who had inhab- of Alexandria and was interested in portraying issues that no ited that land for centuries. Following these journeys, Halim’s one at that time wanted to address. El-Gazzar’s work wasn’t body of work was dominated by the landscape and its peo- intrinsically surreal at first; he was exploring the reasons why ple, the Nile and its boats, all rendered in a rather melancholic something or someone was mystical and mythic, but then fashion. As her roots stemmed from Upper Egypt, Halim ventured into a more cosmic dimension in his later work. No empathised with the plight of the Nubians, a compassion other artist in Egypt had taken such a course and it is for this also reflected in the works of fellow Egyptian, Hamed Ow- reason that El-Gazzar is celebrated today. 181 181 [Ismail] Fattah was fascinated by masks, and while faces are obscured in his works, the figures conveyed an aura of resilience. 182 182 Ismail Fattah. Homage to Picasso. 1971. Bronze. Height: 42 cm. Image courtesy Meem Gallery, Dubai. III. CALLIGRAPHY & SIGNS The lure of the East may well have captivated the great Orientalist masters, but the in- trinsic beauty and variety of the Arab region’s architecture, arabesque designs, Arabic script and poetry had also charmed a generation of Modern Arab artists. Fundamen- tally they sought to personalise all that was beautiful in their surroundings using tra- ditional and cultural elements as their inspiration. After the departure of the colonial powers, the desire to extend visual culture through music, theatre and other art forms became increasingly important. Even before the European mandates, the medium of cinema was celebrated by both Egypt and Lebanon and by the time the latter established independence in 1943, it was favoured over the former as a filmmaking destination. Lebanon’s post- independence cinema industry focused on folkloric themes and also played a sig- nificant role in the early development of Iraqi film. Elsewhere in the region, Morocco’s role in the teaching of the visual arts came into the fore in 1945, with the establish- ment of the School of Fine Arts in Tetouan. COLOURS OF THE MAGHREB All across the Arab world, artists sought to shed the classical, academic art forms taught during the colonial era. It was a challenge to tackle these formal styles and interpret them in a way that spoke to local culture, but not an obstacle from which the celebrated Moroc- can-born Ahmed Cherkaoui (1934–67) shied away. Having studied calligraphy in Casa- blanca, he pursued his artistic training in Paris and Warsaw and experimented in burlap Below left and right: Etel Adnan. (Detail) Zayzafouna (Artist’s Book). 1985. Watercolour on paper. 500 x 30 cm; Ahmed Cherkaoui. Chemin des Grande. 1965. Watercolour on canvas. 87 x 104 cm. Image courtesy Meem Gallery, Dubai. Facing page, left and right: Baya Mahieddine. Untitled. 1967. Mixed media on carton. 76 x 100 cm; Mahmoud Hammad. Dad. 1968. Oil on canvas. 58 x 58 cm. 184 184 and gouaches, developing a deep fascination with signs and symbols. He remained committed to the colours and shapes of his native land – Morocco’s light, its embroi- dery, architecture, pottery and Berber tattoos were his focus. Cherkaoui took elements of the country’s aestheticism and stylised them, thus making it modern, in much the same manner as his compatriot Farid Belkahia (1934–), who fashions local materials for the sake of abstraction. Belkahia rejected classical painting materials – canvas was re- placed by leather, copper, wood, lambskin, pottery and other media, while paint was substituted with natural dyes, minerals, henna and saffron. Belkahia inscribes these large works with magical symbols, letters from the Touareg and Berber alphabet and with numbers, often incorporating the khamsa (five), the hand of Fatima (daughter of the Prophet Mohammed PBUH) as an emblem to ward off the evil eye. Another artist who incorporated Berber symbolism in her work was the Algerian- born Baya Mahieddine (1931–98). Orphaned at a young age and self-taught, she re- located to Paris, where she was discovered by André Breton (1896–1966), the French writer, poet and founder of Surrealism. Breton became fascinated with the freshness The Arab region’s architecture, arabesque designs, Arabic script and poetry had also charmed a generation of Modern Arab artists. WRITTEN BY LOREM IPSUM Iptemorurehem ia inimovi rmihi, terenduces vid perum inpro aur. Nos esilicae me cont? quam. Multus in vivernum, fatum auciisquons et. 185 185 Ahmed Cherkaoui. (Detail) Chemin des Grande. 1965. Watercolour on canvas. 87 x 104 cm. Image courtesy Meem Gallery,186 Dubai. Ahmed Cherkaoui. (Detail) Chemin des Grande. 1965. Watercolour on canvas. 87 x 104 cm. Image courtesy Meem Gallery, Dubai. 187 [Hamed] Abdullah fused the styles of figuration and abstraction using the Arabic letter. and exoticism of Mahieddine’s work. While she initially experimented with clay, her later works on canvas and paper feature magical symbols rendered in a fairytale-like imagery. These led to her being be dubbed a Surrealist, and, later, a naïve painter – both of which she rejected. The ornamentation, colours and motifs in Mahieddine’s works call to mind the traditional carpets and manicured gardens of her native Algeria. Pre- dominantly featuring women and animals in her work, she also incorporated fruit and musical instruments, perhaps influenced by her musician husband Hadj Mahieddine El-Mahfoudh. Mahieddine’s artistic success led many to question just how a woman from an impoverished background, and living in a society that discriminated against gender, could create such joyful and bright compositions. LEVANTINE SCRIPT In the late 1960s, it was argued by some that Social Realism was the ‘right’ style of art for the Arab world, whereas Abstraction was an imported Western phenomenon – a result of the anti-Western sentiments that characterised the era, particularly in the wake of the 1966 Baathist coup d’état in Syria and the 1967 Six-Day War between Israel and the Arab world. Eventually, those who did practice Abstract art came to be removed from the style altogether, as with the Syrian-born Mahmoud Hammad (1923–88). He initially pursued Impressionism but moved towards abstract art before eventually embracing calligraphy. Recognised as one of the first Syrian artists to incorporate the Arabic letter in their works, Hammad studied in Rome and returned to Damascus, where he later served as Dean of the Faculty of Fine Arts at Damascus Uni- versity. In this academic role, his primary con- cern was the creation of a style which could inspire a future genera- tion of artists. This aes- thetic sensibility sought stability through space and colour, particularly as Hammad’s letters embod- ied a rhythm synchronised in colour. 188 Facing page: Farid Belkahia. (Detail) L’Arbre Arc en Ciel. 1989. Dye and henna on skin laid down on board. 140 x 110 cm. Above, left and right: Whereas Hammad’s letters were concentrated on Hamed Abdullah. Allah Akbar. 1953. Acrylic on spatiality in relation to colour, Egypt’s Hamed Abdullah mazonit. 46 x 38 cm; (1912–85) viewed Arabic calligraphy as an aesthetic sym- Hamed Abdullah. La Misère. 1970. Acrylic on bol. Born in the Nile Delta to a peasant family, Abdullah carton. 60 x 45 cm. developed a fascination with texture and was inspired All images courtesy Agial Art Gallery, Beirut unless by the character and fertility of the soil along the river. otherwise specified. Its sensory qualities, evolving forms and iconic cultural value all constituted the root of his artistic practice. Ab- dullah married letters with figures, intentionally allowing for confusion between the literal word and the visual form in what can be described as an anthropomorphic expression. He created his own materials for texture and believed that pictorial representations carried a linguistic element; in many respects, Abdullah fused the styles of figuration and abstraction by using the Arabic letter. Similarly, the celebrated Lebanese-born Etel Adnan’s (1925–) work oscillates between working with the non- representational and with script. A prolific poet, author and visual artist, Adnan has studied in Paris, California and Boston where she taught philosophy. Her Artist Books, which she began in the 1960s, are printed on Japanese folding paper and feature colourful renderings in mixed media alongside poetry, which she has written without adhering to formal writing styles. One’s ‘reading’ of the works takes on a visual and literal feel – it is as though the poetry becomes form, and vice versa, and remains ‘etched’ in memory. 189 Baya. (Detail) Untitled. 1967. Mixed media 190 on carton. 76 x 100 cm. Baya. (Detail) Untitled. 1967. Mixed media on carton. 76 x 100 cm. Image courtesy Agial Art Gallery, Beirut. 191 Special thanks to Nermine Amer Carol Chehab Rosamund Chester Emma Cunningham Firas Darwish Noura Haggag Charles Pocock Hussam Rashwan Hani Yassin
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